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In this episode of SpaceTime, we explore the latest developments in space exploration, lunar geology, and solar phenomena.
SpaceX's Fiery Ninth Starship Test Flight
The latest test flight of SpaceX's Starship ended dramatically as both the orbiter and the booster were destroyed during reentry. Despite the fiery conclusion, SpaceX officials noted that the test was designed to push the limits of the spacecraft. The flight featured numerous milestones, including a successful hot staging and the first reflight of a booster. However, issues arose during the landing burn, resulting in a spectacular explosion. We discuss the implications of this test and what it means for future missions, including NASA's Artemis 3.
Lunar Rocks and Their Magnetic Mystery
A new study proposes that a significant asteroid impact may explain the presence of highly magnetic rocks on the Moon. Researchers suggest that a brief amplification of the Moon's weak magnetic field, caused by a large plasma-generated impact event, could account for the magnetism observed in some lunar samples. This hypothesis sheds light on the Moon's geological history and its magnetic properties, particularly in regions near the lunar south pole, where future missions are planned.
Revealing the Sun's Corona
Astronomers have captured unprecedented details of the Sun's corona using a new adaptive optics system. This groundbreaking technology has allowed scientists to produce the clearest images of the corona yet, enhancing our understanding of coronal heating and solar eruptions. The new observations reveal dynamic features and turbulent flows within the corona, providing insights into the mechanisms driving space weather and its effects on Earth.
www.spacetimewithstuartgary.com
✍️ Episode References
Nature Astronomy
https://www.nature.com/natureastronomy/
Science Advances
https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv
Become a supporter of this podcast: https://www.spreaker.com/podcast/spacetime-space-astronomy--2458531/support.
00:00 This is Space Time Series 28, Episode 67 for broadcast on 4 June 2025
01:00 SpaceX's ninth Starship test flight
12:15 Lunar rocks and their magnetic mystery
22:30 Revealing the Sun's corona
30:00 Science report: New methods for green hydrogen production
00:00:00 --> 00:00:02 Stuart Gary: This is space time series 28, episode
00:00:02 --> 00:00:05 67 for broadcast on 4 June
00:00:05 --> 00:00:07 2025. Coming up on space time,
00:00:08 --> 00:00:11 SpaceX's ninth Starship test flight comes to a
00:00:11 --> 00:00:14 fiery end. A possible solution as to why
00:00:14 --> 00:00:17 some rocks on the moon are highly magnetic and
00:00:17 --> 00:00:19 amazing. Never before seen details about the
00:00:19 --> 00:00:22 sun's atmosphere, the corona, all that and more coming
00:00:22 --> 00:00:24 up on Space Time.
00:00:25 --> 00:00:28 Voice Over Guy: Welcome to Space Time with Stuart
00:00:28 --> 00:00:28 Gary Gary.
00:00:44 --> 00:00:47 Stuart Gary: The ninth test flight of SpaceX's Starships reached a
00:00:47 --> 00:00:50 spectacular and fiery conclusion with the destruction of both
00:00:50 --> 00:00:53 the orbiter and the booster. The super heavy
00:00:53 --> 00:00:56 booster exploded during its landing engine burn, while the
00:00:56 --> 00:00:59 starship orbiter suddenly lost attitude control and began
00:00:59 --> 00:01:02 spinning wildly before ripping itself apart during
00:01:02 --> 00:01:05 re ent. However, mission managers at
00:01:05 --> 00:01:08 SpaceX said the outcome wasn't totally unexpected
00:01:08 --> 00:01:11 as the flight was always designed to test the limits of the
00:01:11 --> 00:01:14 spacecraft. The launch from SpaceX's Starbase
00:01:14 --> 00:01:16 in Boca Chica on the Texas Gulf coast went smoothly
00:01:16 --> 00:01:19 enough with all 33 Raptor 2 engines
00:01:19 --> 00:01:22 lighting up and sending the world's biggest and most powerful
00:01:22 --> 00:01:23 rocket into space.
00:01:36 --> 00:01:39 Stuart Gary: Sight from here we see it arcing right over top of us.
00:01:39 --> 00:01:42 We see 33 out of 33
00:01:42 --> 00:01:45 Raptor engines lit on super heavy as
00:01:45 --> 00:01:48 it starts to ascend skyward. Coming up on maximum
00:01:48 --> 00:01:51 aerodynamic pressure. Then only about a minute and a half
00:01:51 --> 00:01:52 until we get into hot staging.
00:01:52 --> 00:01:55 Commentator: We could feel the building shaking here,
00:01:55 --> 00:01:58 feel the vehicle's power and we're just about a
00:01:58 --> 00:02:01 minute away from shutting down those engines
00:02:01 --> 00:02:04 on the booster again. This booster is flying for
00:02:04 --> 00:02:05 its second time today.
00:02:05 --> 00:02:08 Stuart Gary: We're going to see all but the three center engines
00:02:08 --> 00:02:11 turn off on the booster. So our version of
00:02:11 --> 00:02:14 Miko, most engines cut off and then just a few seconds later,
00:02:14 --> 00:02:17 hoping to see six engines ignite on ship to
00:02:17 --> 00:02:17 push it away.
00:02:17 --> 00:02:20 Stuart Gary: The mission profile was supposed to see the spacecraft
00:02:20 --> 00:02:23 fly across the Atlantic Ocean in Africa before
00:02:23 --> 00:02:25 descending over the Indian Ocean and then finally
00:02:25 --> 00:02:28 splashing down off the western Australian coast.
00:02:29 --> 00:02:32 Hot staging of the 123 meter tall vehicle was
00:02:32 --> 00:02:34 nominal with Starship igniting all six Raptor engines
00:02:34 --> 00:02:37 for the climb to orbital altitude. While the super heavy booster
00:02:37 --> 00:02:40 performed a successful flip and boost back burn.
00:02:40 --> 00:02:43 Stuart Gary: Keep an eye on which way the booster flips. First ever
00:02:43 --> 00:02:46 directional flip we're going for today should flip straight
00:02:46 --> 00:02:48 up. See those engines powering down. Booster
00:02:48 --> 00:02:51 engine cutoff, Ship ignition, stage separation.
00:02:51 --> 00:02:54 Commentator: Incredible flip by super heavy
00:02:54 --> 00:02:57 booster. Those six engines, those three engines on.
00:02:57 --> 00:03:00 Stuart Gary: The ship ignited six healthy Raptors
00:03:00 --> 00:03:03 running on ship on its way to space. Booster
00:03:03 --> 00:03:04 doing the boost.
00:03:04 --> 00:03:06 Commentator: Back chamber pressure's nominal. It Is looking absolutely
00:03:06 --> 00:03:09 incredible here in Hawthorne. As we said, six healthy
00:03:09 --> 00:03:12 engines on ship. We've got 13 out of 13 engines
00:03:12 --> 00:03:15 on the booster now down to those three, which is what we expect
00:03:15 --> 00:03:18 in the final moments of the boostback burn.
00:03:18 --> 00:03:21 Stuart Gary: This was the third flight for the V2 version
00:03:21 --> 00:03:24 of Starship and included numerous improvements over previous
00:03:24 --> 00:03:26 prototypes, including new heat shield tiles and additional
00:03:26 --> 00:03:29 venting. But the flight was even more significant as
00:03:29 --> 00:03:32 this marked the second launch for the same booster, the first
00:03:32 --> 00:03:35 time it had been tried on a Starship mission. That same
00:03:35 --> 00:03:38 booster had successfully flown previously on Flight 7
00:03:38 --> 00:03:41 back in January. And following that mission,
00:03:41 --> 00:03:44 only four of the 33 Raptor engines needed to be
00:03:44 --> 00:03:47 replaced, and one of those engines was now on its third
00:03:47 --> 00:03:49 launch. The booster's descent back to Earth
00:03:49 --> 00:03:52 included testing a new, steeper re entry angle of attack
00:03:52 --> 00:03:55 profile designed to send it to a watery splashdown
00:03:55 --> 00:03:58 landing in the Gulf rather than return to the launch pad.
00:03:58 --> 00:04:01 Commentator: Six healthy engines on ship. We've got 13 out of
00:04:01 --> 00:04:04 13 engines on the booster now down to those three, which
00:04:04 --> 00:04:07 is what we expect in the final moments of the boost back
00:04:07 --> 00:04:10 burn. Now, as a reminder, we are not recovering the
00:04:10 --> 00:04:12 super heavy booster today. We are instead going to do booster
00:04:12 --> 00:04:15 boostback shutdown. And there we had a good shutdown of
00:04:15 --> 00:04:18 the boost back burn. Next up will be the jettison
00:04:18 --> 00:04:19 of that hot stage.
00:04:20 --> 00:04:21 Stuart Gary: Avionics power and telemetry nominal.
00:04:21 --> 00:04:24 Commentator: Great call out there that everything looking nominal aboard
00:04:24 --> 00:04:27 the super heavy vehicle which is returning to Earth. And we're going
00:04:27 --> 00:04:30 to be doing some experiments with it, including, a higher
00:04:30 --> 00:04:33 angle of attack reentry, as well as
00:04:33 --> 00:04:36 some engine tests as it gets closer to
00:04:36 --> 00:04:38 the Gulf. We are again, because of these tests, not
00:04:38 --> 00:04:41 recovering it. We are sending it to the Gulf on purpose
00:04:41 --> 00:04:44 to do those test skip. With six healthy engines continuing
00:04:44 --> 00:04:47 its ascent to its planned suborbital trajectory.
00:04:47 --> 00:04:50 everything going very well so far for Starship's
00:04:50 --> 00:04:53 ninth flight. Now 4 minutes, 15 seconds in
00:04:53 --> 00:04:56 the booster doing its lox dump, that liquid
00:04:56 --> 00:04:59 oxygen dump. So because we don't need some of that liquid oxygen
00:04:59 --> 00:05:01 propellant, and in its tanks, we vent that propellant
00:05:01 --> 00:05:04 out to lessen the booster's mass as it comes in
00:05:05 --> 00:05:08 for its landing. Super heavy is descending
00:05:08 --> 00:05:10 rapidly. what can we expect here in the next few minutes as it
00:05:10 --> 00:05:12 does its atmospheric tests?
00:05:12 --> 00:05:15 Stuart Gary: Super heavy might not have a very smooth ride down. We're
00:05:15 --> 00:05:18 going to be putting it through this higher angle of attack.
00:05:18 --> 00:05:21 So we're kind of pitching it up a tiny bit, increasing drag.
00:05:22 --> 00:05:25 We've done this in wind tunnels. We've done this in
00:05:25 --> 00:05:27 computer modeling. It shows that sometimes
00:05:27 --> 00:05:30 the control isn't great, but only one way to
00:05:30 --> 00:05:33 really prove it out and that's to get real world data. So here
00:05:33 --> 00:05:35 comes super heavy. It should be
00:05:36 --> 00:05:38 igniting for its landing burn in
00:05:39 --> 00:05:41 just about 40 seconds from
00:05:41 --> 00:05:42 now.
00:05:42 --> 00:05:45 Commentator: And we are going to relight 13 engines, then
00:05:45 --> 00:05:47 bring that down to three engines. We will be
00:05:47 --> 00:05:50 intentionally shutting down. We will be shutting down
00:05:50 --> 00:05:53 one of those three center engines intentionally
00:05:53 --> 00:05:55 to push the limits of the super heavy booster.
00:05:55 --> 00:05:57 Commentator: Super raptor chamber pressure's nominal.
00:05:57 --> 00:06:00 Commentator: And continuing to see six healthy
00:06:00 --> 00:06:03 engines on the ship. Three sea
00:06:03 --> 00:06:06 level and three vacuum engines still ignited
00:06:06 --> 00:06:08 as the super heavy booster is making its way back down to Earth.
00:06:08 --> 00:06:11 Stuart Gary: Those grid fins doing some heavy work. Booster landing startup
00:06:11 --> 00:06:13 ignited for our landing burn.
00:06:13 --> 00:06:15 Stuart Gary: Everything appeared to be going smoothly until the landing
00:06:15 --> 00:06:18 burn. Thirteen Raptor engines were meant to restart for
00:06:18 --> 00:06:21 this, but only 12 did. And moments later, the
00:06:21 --> 00:06:24 booster suddenly exploded in a massive fireball.
00:06:24 --> 00:06:27 Stuart Gary: It may have ended with that, landing burn. Does look like we
00:06:27 --> 00:06:29 lost telemetry from the booster once we started
00:06:29 --> 00:06:32 into that landing burn. Did you see a confirmation
00:06:32 --> 00:06:35 that the booster did demise? So the booster's
00:06:35 --> 00:06:38 flight ending before it was able to get through landing burn.
00:06:38 --> 00:06:41 But again, we were not bringing that back. We were expecting it
00:06:41 --> 00:06:44 to make a hard splashdown in the Gulf. We
00:06:44 --> 00:06:47 were getting live data back the entire time through that
00:06:47 --> 00:06:50 high angle of attack flight. So that was something that
00:06:50 --> 00:06:52 was really vital for us to get during this
00:06:52 --> 00:06:53 reuse.
00:06:53 --> 00:06:55 First reflighted booster in the books.
00:06:55 --> 00:06:58 Stuart Gary: Meanwhile, starship continued its ascent into space.
00:06:58 --> 00:07:01 But then a jet of fluid was seen venting from the
00:07:01 --> 00:07:04 engine bay between the sea level and vacuum Raptor
00:07:04 --> 00:07:07 engines. Now it's thought this was probably just the new
00:07:07 --> 00:07:10 nitrogen purge system installed in the attic space between
00:07:10 --> 00:07:13 the top of the engine heat shield and the bottom of the oxygen tank.
00:07:13 --> 00:07:16 See, that's where fire broke out during Flight 7. So
00:07:16 --> 00:07:18 SpaceX installed the new purge system to vent out
00:07:18 --> 00:07:21 built up gases. Then about nine minutes into the
00:07:21 --> 00:07:24 flight, hotspots began to develop quite noticeably
00:07:24 --> 00:07:27 at two separate locations in the engine bay.
00:07:27 --> 00:07:29 Commentator: In about two minutes, we expect all six
00:07:30 --> 00:07:32 Raptor engines to shut down. That will
00:07:32 --> 00:07:35 be seco. Basically second engine or
00:07:35 --> 00:07:37 second stage engine shut off.
00:07:37 --> 00:07:40 Stuart Gary: All eyes definitely on ship. As we get through the final
00:07:40 --> 00:07:43 stages into its ascent, we're expecting
00:07:43 --> 00:07:45 it to start to cut those engines off.
00:07:45 --> 00:07:48 Terminal guidance. We're in terminal guidance. The final
00:07:48 --> 00:07:51 stages of this ascent burn. we did see shutdown of
00:07:51 --> 00:07:54 the Raptor engines. We do stagger these. So we do
00:07:54 --> 00:07:57 the Raptors first. Those three have shut down
00:07:57 --> 00:08:00 successfully. Sea levels still running. Ship
00:08:00 --> 00:08:02 engine cut off. Ship engine. The three
00:08:02 --> 00:08:05 most beautiful words in the English language.
00:08:05 --> 00:08:08 Commentator: And great call out that we had. Nominal
00:08:08 --> 00:08:10 insertion. An incredible
00:08:11 --> 00:08:12 flight test so far.
00:08:12 --> 00:08:15 Today we reflew a super
00:08:15 --> 00:08:18 heavy booster. For the very first time in nine
00:08:18 --> 00:08:21 test flights. Ship is in its
00:08:21 --> 00:08:24 orbital trajectory again. It's going to remain
00:08:24 --> 00:08:27 suborbital for its mission today. But it
00:08:27 --> 00:08:30 ignited, it ignited all six
00:08:30 --> 00:08:32 of its engines and made it all the way through
00:08:32 --> 00:08:34 SECO just now.
00:08:34 --> 00:08:37 Stuart Gary: Main engine cutout happened as planned. But it was at about
00:08:37 --> 00:08:40 this time that Starship began tumbling end over
00:08:40 --> 00:08:43 end out of control, possibly from venting fuel
00:08:43 --> 00:08:45 leaks acting as a sort of jet and causing an asymmetric
00:08:45 --> 00:08:48 rotation of the spacecraft. Now this should have been countered
00:08:48 --> 00:08:51 by Starship's attitude control system. It
00:08:51 --> 00:08:54 uses some of the gas normally used to pressurise the fuel system
00:08:54 --> 00:08:57 to act as a propellant. But because the
00:08:57 --> 00:08:59 fuel system was leaking, there simply wasn't enough gas
00:08:59 --> 00:09:02 left to charge the attitude control system.
00:09:02 --> 00:09:05 And so gradually the end over end tumble got
00:09:05 --> 00:09:08 worse and eventually a horizontal spin began
00:09:08 --> 00:09:09 developing as well.
00:09:09 --> 00:09:12 Stuart Gary: And so at this point we've essentially
00:09:12 --> 00:09:14 lost our attitude control with Starship. We are
00:09:14 --> 00:09:17 still on a path toward reentry. We are suborbital.
00:09:17 --> 00:09:20 So no matter what we are going to enter, however,
00:09:20 --> 00:09:23 this lowers the chances for it to be a controlled
00:09:23 --> 00:09:26 reentry. So if you think back to
00:09:26 --> 00:09:29 Flight 3 when we had something similar
00:09:29 --> 00:09:32 happen, just the end symptom
00:09:32 --> 00:09:35 of a loss of attitude control. We were in a roll by the time we
00:09:35 --> 00:09:37 hit reentry. So we are going to re enter.
00:09:37 --> 00:09:40 We should hopefully still have views. the
00:09:40 --> 00:09:43 Starlink satellites are pretty robust to still
00:09:43 --> 00:09:46 maintaining contact. We've got four of those terminals on
00:09:46 --> 00:09:49 the vehicle and they're pretty robust to maintaining contact
00:09:49 --> 00:09:51 even when we are in a spin.
00:09:51 --> 00:09:54 Essentially, we're coming up on Africa, I
00:09:54 --> 00:09:56 believe we do swing just to the south of that
00:09:56 --> 00:09:59 continent. and by the time we start heading out
00:09:59 --> 00:10:02 over the Indian Ocean, we'll start heading into a sunrise.
00:10:02 --> 00:10:05 So not looking great with a lot of our on orbit objectives
00:10:05 --> 00:10:07 for today. Relight an engine and then really
00:10:07 --> 00:10:10 importantly, get into that controlled entry to really
00:10:10 --> 00:10:13 put the heat shield through the ringer. Nonetheless,
00:10:13 --> 00:10:16 Starship marching forward towards that re entry over the
00:10:16 --> 00:10:19 Indian Ocean. So we'll continue to hang with it.
00:10:19 --> 00:10:22 Stuart Gary: Now, while all this was going on, an attempt was being made to deploy a
00:10:22 --> 00:10:25 series of eight Starlink satellite simulators as part of an
00:10:25 --> 00:10:28 in flight test. But that also failed when the
00:10:28 --> 00:10:31 payload bay door failed to open. But the
00:10:31 --> 00:10:34 bigger problem, Starship now spinning out of control, was
00:10:34 --> 00:10:36 doomed to fall back into the atmosphere at crazy
00:10:36 --> 00:10:37 angles.
00:10:37 --> 00:10:39 Stuart Gary: So we are expecting it break up
00:10:39 --> 00:10:42 essentially on its reentry over the Indian Ocean.
00:10:42 --> 00:10:45 So not able to do a lot of our on
00:10:45 --> 00:10:47 orbit objectives today. Again, we are
00:10:48 --> 00:10:51 in essentially a tumble. We had lost that attitude control.
00:10:51 --> 00:10:53 Stuart Gary: 41 minutes into the flight, Starship began to break
00:10:53 --> 00:10:56 apart and melt as it was ripped into pieces by its
00:10:56 --> 00:10:58 atmosphere vehicle.
00:10:58 --> 00:11:00 Commentator: To see about 1400 degrees Celsius,
00:11:00 --> 00:11:03 feeling that temperature there melting away.
00:11:03 --> 00:11:06 But as we expected, with the spinning of the
00:11:06 --> 00:11:09 vehicle, we are no longer controlling it,
00:11:09 --> 00:11:12 is expected to see, see it begin to
00:11:12 --> 00:11:14 demise a little bit on its way back down to Earth.
00:11:14 --> 00:11:17 Stuart Gary: It's re entering actively right now. and again, we did
00:11:17 --> 00:11:20 do what's called passivation. So you essentially vent all
00:11:20 --> 00:11:22 of your excess propellant overboard before you hit the
00:11:22 --> 00:11:25 atmosphere. That's a safety measure we can take on the ship
00:11:25 --> 00:11:28 while you still have contact with it. So that was done.
00:11:28 --> 00:11:31 It's now coming down m in the predetermined hazard area
00:11:31 --> 00:11:34 that was cleared ahead of flight, not controlled. So we're not going to
00:11:34 --> 00:11:37 get all of that reentry data that we're still really looking
00:11:37 --> 00:11:39 forward to. This is kind of a new generation
00:11:40 --> 00:11:42 of ship. It has different flaps,
00:11:42 --> 00:11:45 improved heat shield, a whole lot of things that we're really trying
00:11:45 --> 00:11:48 to really put through the wringer. There's a whole lot we still
00:11:48 --> 00:11:51 need to learn before we get to kind of the next step that we're
00:11:51 --> 00:11:54 hoping for, which is going to be that ship going orbital and
00:11:54 --> 00:11:57 eventually coming back here for a catch. So getting
00:11:57 --> 00:12:00 through one of these fully is going to be really
00:12:00 --> 00:12:03 important. it's not going to be today, but we are just
00:12:03 --> 00:12:05 going to stick with the ship, see what else we can learn
00:12:06 --> 00:12:09 as it makes its way through the atmosphere and
00:12:09 --> 00:12:12 brings an end to the ninth flight test. so we'll stick with it.
00:12:12 --> 00:12:14 Stuart Gary: The mission was over. a full investigation to determine what
00:12:14 --> 00:12:17 happened is now underway. SpaceX boss
00:12:17 --> 00:12:20 Elon Musk says launch cadence for the next three flights will be
00:12:20 --> 00:12:23 faster at approximately one every three to four weeks.
00:12:23 --> 00:12:26 The company need to get on top of the problem because no V2
00:12:26 --> 00:12:29 version of Starship has successfully achieved its flight
00:12:29 --> 00:12:32 parameters. See, a key part of the starship
00:12:32 --> 00:12:34 program will be assisting NASA's plans to return
00:12:34 --> 00:12:37 humans to the moon in 2027 aboard the Artemis
00:12:37 --> 00:12:40 3 mission. A version of starship will act as a
00:12:40 --> 00:12:43 shuttle, transporting crew and supplies from the Orion
00:12:43 --> 00:12:45 capsule down to the lunar surface.
00:12:46 --> 00:12:48 Meanwhile, Major design changes for Starship and Super
00:12:48 --> 00:12:51 heavy are also on the horizon. These include
00:12:51 --> 00:12:54 a nine engine variant of Starship. There are currently six
00:12:54 --> 00:12:57 engines on the Starship orbiter, and the use of just three rather
00:12:57 --> 00:13:00 than the current four grid fins on the super heavy booster.
00:13:01 --> 00:13:04 Also future versions of the Starship super heavy booster
00:13:04 --> 00:13:06 stack will get taller, eventually reaching a height of
00:13:06 --> 00:13:09 142 meters. These ongoing
00:13:09 --> 00:13:12 evolutionary changes are all part of Musk's plan
00:13:12 --> 00:13:14 to develop Starship as a true interplanetary
00:13:14 --> 00:13:17 colonial transport vehicle one capable of taking
00:13:17 --> 00:13:20 100 people or 150 tons of equipment and supplies
00:13:20 --> 00:13:23 on journeys not just to the moon, but eventually
00:13:23 --> 00:13:26 Mars and beyond. In the process turning the
00:13:26 --> 00:13:28 human race into a two planet civilization.
00:13:29 --> 00:13:32 This is space time still to come.
00:13:33 --> 00:13:35 Why are some rocks on the moon so heavily magnetized?
00:13:36 --> 00:13:39 And astronomers scope never before seen details in
00:13:39 --> 00:13:41 the Sun's atmosphere, the corona, all that and more
00:13:41 --> 00:13:43 still to come on space time.
00:13:47 --> 00:13:50 Okay, let's take a break from M. Our show for a word from our sponsor
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00:15:16 --> 00:15:19 stuartgary to access this exclusive discount offer. and
00:15:19 --> 00:15:22 learn more. Stay safe, stay
00:15:22 --> 00:15:25 private with Incogni and now it's
00:15:25 --> 00:15:25 back to our show.
00:15:33 --> 00:15:36 A new study claims a large asteroid impact on the
00:15:36 --> 00:15:39 Moon could explain why some lunar rocks are highly
00:15:39 --> 00:15:42 magnetic. The findings, reported in the journal
00:15:42 --> 00:15:45 Science Advances, suggest the impact could have briefly
00:15:45 --> 00:15:47 amplified the Moon's weak magnetic field, creating a
00:15:47 --> 00:15:50 momentary spike that was recorded in some lunar
00:15:50 --> 00:15:53 rocks. Scientists have puzzled over the fate of the
00:15:53 --> 00:15:56 Moon's magnetic field for decades, ever since orbiting
00:15:56 --> 00:15:59 spacecraft first picked up signs of a highly magnetic field
00:15:59 --> 00:16:02 in some lunar surface rocks. The problem is
00:16:02 --> 00:16:04 the Moon itself has no inherent magnetism. Today,
00:16:05 --> 00:16:08 this new hypothesis suggests that a combination of
00:16:08 --> 00:16:10 an ancient weak magnetic field and a large
00:16:10 --> 00:16:13 plasma generated impact event may have
00:16:13 --> 00:16:15 temporarily created a strong magnetic field
00:16:15 --> 00:16:18 concentrated on the far side of the Moon. The
00:16:18 --> 00:16:21 study's authors undertook detailed simulations showing
00:16:21 --> 00:16:24 how an impact such as from a large asteroid could have generated
00:16:24 --> 00:16:27 a cloud of ionized particles that briefly enveloped the
00:16:27 --> 00:16:30 entire Moon. This plasma would have streamed around the
00:16:30 --> 00:16:33 Moon and concentrated at the opposite location from the
00:16:33 --> 00:16:35 initial point of impact. There, the plasma would have
00:16:35 --> 00:16:38 interacted with and momentarily amplified the Moon's own
00:16:38 --> 00:16:41 weak magnetic field, and any rocks in that region
00:16:41 --> 00:16:44 could have recorded signs of heightened magnetism before the
00:16:44 --> 00:16:47 field died away. This combination of
00:16:47 --> 00:16:50 events could explain the presence of highly magnetic rocks
00:16:50 --> 00:16:53 detected in a region near the lunar south pole on the
00:16:53 --> 00:16:56 Moon's far side. And as it happens, one of
00:16:56 --> 00:16:58 the largest impact basins on the Moon, the Ibrium
00:16:58 --> 00:17:01 basin, is located in the exact opposite spot on the
00:17:01 --> 00:17:04 near side of the Moon. The study's lead author,
00:17:04 --> 00:17:07 Isaac Nurett from mit, says whatever made the impact
00:17:07 --> 00:17:10 likely released a cloud of plasma that kicked off the
00:17:10 --> 00:17:12 magnetic scenario seen in their simulations.
00:17:12 --> 00:17:15 He says there are large parts of lunar magnetism that are simply
00:17:15 --> 00:17:18 unexplained. But the majority of the strong
00:17:18 --> 00:17:21 magnetic fields that are being measured by orbiting spacecraft could
00:17:21 --> 00:17:24 be explained by this impact process, especially on the
00:17:24 --> 00:17:27 lunar far side. Scientists have known
00:17:27 --> 00:17:30 for decades that the Moon does hold remnants of a strong
00:17:30 --> 00:17:33 magnetic field. Samples from the surface of the Moon
00:17:33 --> 00:17:36 returned by astronauts on NASA's Apollo missions in the 60s
00:17:36 --> 00:17:38 and 70s, as well as global measurements of the Moon taken from
00:17:39 --> 00:17:41 orbiting spacecraft, show signs of remnant magnetism in
00:17:41 --> 00:17:44 surface rocks, especially on the far side of the Moon.
00:17:44 --> 00:17:47 Now, the typical explanation for surface magnetism is
00:17:47 --> 00:17:50 a global magnetic field generated by an internal
00:17:50 --> 00:17:53 geodynamo, a core of molten, churning
00:17:53 --> 00:17:55 metallic material. In fact, the Earth today
00:17:55 --> 00:17:58 generates just such a magnetic field through its Own
00:17:58 --> 00:18:01 geodynamo process. And it's thought that the Moon May
00:18:01 --> 00:18:03 well once have done the same. Although being a m much smaller
00:18:03 --> 00:18:06 core, it would have produced A much weaker magnetic field.
00:18:07 --> 00:18:09 But that wouldn't explain the highly magnetized rocks
00:18:09 --> 00:18:12 observed, Particularly those on the Moon's far side.
00:18:12 --> 00:18:15 And that's where this alternative hypothesis Involving a giant
00:18:15 --> 00:18:18 impact comes in. In 2020,
00:18:18 --> 00:18:21 scientists tested this hypothesis with simulations of a
00:18:21 --> 00:18:24 giant impact on the Moon in combination with the solar
00:18:24 --> 00:18:27 generated magnetic field, which is weak as it stretches
00:18:27 --> 00:18:30 out to the Earth and Moon. In the simulations,
00:18:30 --> 00:18:32 they tested whether an impact on the Moon could amplify such a
00:18:32 --> 00:18:35 solar field enough to explain the highly magnetic measurements
00:18:35 --> 00:18:38 they found on the surface rocks. It turns out
00:18:38 --> 00:18:41 it wasn't enough. So the results seemed to rule out a
00:18:41 --> 00:18:44 plasma induced impact as playing any sort of role in the
00:18:44 --> 00:18:46 Moon's missing magnetism. But in this new
00:18:46 --> 00:18:49 hypothesis, the authors took a different tack. Instead
00:18:49 --> 00:18:52 of accounting for the Sun's magnetic field, they assumed the
00:18:52 --> 00:18:54 Moon once hosted Its own geodynamo produced
00:18:54 --> 00:18:57 magnetic field, although a reasonably weak one.
00:18:57 --> 00:19:00 Now, given the size of the lunar core, they estimate that such
00:19:00 --> 00:19:03 a field Would have been about one micro Tesla, 50
00:19:03 --> 00:19:05 times weaker than the Earth's magnetic field today.
00:19:06 --> 00:19:09 From this starting point, the authors simulated a large impact
00:19:09 --> 00:19:12 on the Moon's surface, similar to what would have created the Imbrium
00:19:12 --> 00:19:15 crater On the Moon's near side. Using impact
00:19:15 --> 00:19:18 simulations, the authors then simulated the cloud of
00:19:18 --> 00:19:21 plasma that such an impact would have generated. As the force of the
00:19:21 --> 00:19:23 impact vaporized the surface material,
00:19:24 --> 00:19:26 they simulated how the resulting plasma would flow and
00:19:26 --> 00:19:29 interact with the Moon's weak magnetic field. And
00:19:29 --> 00:19:32 these simulations showed that as a plasma cloud arose from the
00:19:32 --> 00:19:35 impact, Some of it would have expanded into space, While the rest
00:19:35 --> 00:19:38 would have streamed around the Moon and concentrated on the
00:19:38 --> 00:19:41 opposite side. There, the plasma would
00:19:41 --> 00:19:44 have compressed and briefly amplified the Moon's own weak
00:19:44 --> 00:19:46 magnetic field. The entire process, from
00:19:46 --> 00:19:49 the moment the magnetic field is amplified to the time it decays
00:19:49 --> 00:19:52 back to the baseline, Would have been fairly quick, no more than
00:19:52 --> 00:19:55 around 40 minutes. But they also found that an
00:19:55 --> 00:19:58 Imbrium scale impact Would have produced a pressure wave which
00:19:58 --> 00:20:01 traveled through the Moon, similar to a seismic shock. And these
00:20:01 --> 00:20:04 waves would have converged on the opposite side from the impact, where the shock
00:20:04 --> 00:20:07 front Would have jittered the surrounding rocks, briefly unsettling
00:20:07 --> 00:20:09 the rock's electrons. They're the subatomic particles that
00:20:09 --> 00:20:12 naturally orient their spins to any external magnetic
00:20:12 --> 00:20:15 field. The authors suspect that the rocks were being
00:20:15 --> 00:20:18 shocked Just as the impact plasma was amplifying the
00:20:18 --> 00:20:20 Moon's magnetic field. So as the rock's
00:20:20 --> 00:20:23 electrons settled back, they assumed a new
00:20:23 --> 00:20:25 orientation in line with the momentarily high
00:20:25 --> 00:20:28 magnetic field. This combination of a
00:20:28 --> 00:20:31 dynamo plus a large impact coupled with the impact
00:20:31 --> 00:20:34 shock wave would be enough to explain the Moon's highly
00:20:34 --> 00:20:36 magnetic surface rocks, especially on the far side.
00:20:37 --> 00:20:40 Of course, one way to know for sure is to directly sample these
00:20:40 --> 00:20:43 rocks for signs of shock and high magnetism. And
00:20:43 --> 00:20:46 that could well be possible relatively soon, as the rocks on
00:20:46 --> 00:20:48 the far side are near the lunar south pole, where
00:20:48 --> 00:20:51 NASA's Artemis manned lunar missions are, programmed to land
00:20:51 --> 00:20:54 and explore. Needless to say, we'll
00:20:54 --> 00:20:57 keep you informed. This is space time
00:20:58 --> 00:21:01 still to come. Never before seen details about the
00:21:01 --> 00:21:04 Sun's corona. And later in the science report, a
00:21:04 --> 00:21:07 new study shows that urine rather than water will
00:21:07 --> 00:21:09 be the most efficient method of production if you wanted to make
00:21:09 --> 00:21:12 green hydrogen. All that and more coming up on
00:21:12 --> 00:21:13 space time.
00:21:28 --> 00:21:31 Astronomers have employed a new adaptive optics system,
00:21:31 --> 00:21:34 allowing them to uncover stunning, never before seen
00:21:34 --> 00:21:37 details about the Sun's atmosphere. The corona.
00:21:37 --> 00:21:40 The groundbreaking results reported in the journal Nature Astronomy
00:21:40 --> 00:21:43 are paving the way for deeper insights into coronal heating,
00:21:43 --> 00:21:46 solar eruptions and space weather events.
00:21:47 --> 00:21:50 Research by scientists from the United States National Science
00:21:50 --> 00:21:53 Foundation's National Solar Observatory and the New Jersey
00:21:53 --> 00:21:55 Institute of Technology have produced the clearest high
00:21:55 --> 00:21:58 resolution images of the Sun's corona ever undertaken.
00:21:59 --> 00:22:02 The key is this new coronal adaptive optics
00:22:02 --> 00:22:04 system that removes the blur from images caused by
00:22:04 --> 00:22:07 Earth's atmosphere. Funded by the National
00:22:07 --> 00:22:10 Science foundation and installed on the 1.6 meter
00:22:10 --> 00:22:13 Goode Solar Telescope at Big Bear Solar Observatory in
00:22:13 --> 00:22:16 California, Kona. The name of the adaptive optics system
00:22:16 --> 00:22:19 responsible for these new images compensates for the blur
00:22:19 --> 00:22:21 caused by air turbulence in the atmosphere.
00:22:21 --> 00:22:24 Dirk Schmidt, who helped develop the system, says the turbulence
00:22:24 --> 00:22:27 in the air severely degrades images of objects in space
00:22:27 --> 00:22:29 seen by telescopes, and that includes the Sun.
00:22:30 --> 00:22:33 The Sun's corona, the outermost layer of the Sun's
00:22:33 --> 00:22:35 atmosphere, is visible only during a total solar
00:22:35 --> 00:22:38 eclipse. And its long intrigued science scientists due to its
00:22:38 --> 00:22:41 extreme temperatures, violent eruptions and large
00:22:41 --> 00:22:44 prominences. Among the remarkable observations
00:22:44 --> 00:22:47 seen in these new images are quickly restructuring
00:22:47 --> 00:22:49 solar prominences. Unveiling fine turbulent
00:22:49 --> 00:22:52 internal flows. These look like raindrops
00:22:52 --> 00:22:55 in the Sun's atmosphere. Solar prominences
00:22:55 --> 00:22:58 are large bright features often appearing as arches or
00:22:58 --> 00:23:01 loops and extending out from the Sun's surface.
00:23:01 --> 00:23:04 The corona is heated to millions of degrees, much
00:23:04 --> 00:23:07 hotter than the Sun's surface, which is about 6 degrees.
00:23:07 --> 00:23:10 But the exact methods doing this are still not fully
00:23:10 --> 00:23:13 understood. After all, the Further you get away from a heat source, the
00:23:13 --> 00:23:15 cooler it's supposed to get. The corona is also home
00:23:15 --> 00:23:18 to dynamic phenomena, such as cooler solar plasma
00:23:18 --> 00:23:21 that appears reddish pink during eclipses.
00:23:21 --> 00:23:24 Astronomers believe that resolving the structure and
00:23:24 --> 00:23:27 dynamics of the cooler plasma at smaller scales
00:23:27 --> 00:23:29 holds the key to answering the coronal heating mystery,
00:23:29 --> 00:23:32 thereby improving our understanding of the eruptions ejecting
00:23:32 --> 00:23:35 plasma deep into space, driving space weather the
00:23:35 --> 00:23:37 conditions which in near Earth space are primarily
00:23:37 --> 00:23:40 influenced by the sun's activity, such as solar flares,
00:23:40 --> 00:23:43 coronal mass ejections, and the solar wind.
00:23:44 --> 00:23:46 These effects can impact technology and systems
00:23:46 --> 00:23:49 on the Earth and near Earth space. They can damage or
00:23:49 --> 00:23:52 destroy satellites, cause the Earth's atmosphere to suddenly
00:23:52 --> 00:23:55 expand and contract unexpectedly inducing atmospheric
00:23:55 --> 00:23:58 drag and orbital decay on spacecraft, thereby causing them to
00:23:58 --> 00:24:01 use more fuel. They can also increase radioactive
00:24:01 --> 00:24:04 exposure for astronauts and other crew in space.
00:24:04 --> 00:24:07 They can affect communications and navigation systems.
00:24:07 --> 00:24:09 And they can severely disrupt terrestrial power
00:24:09 --> 00:24:12 grids by overloading power lines, causing
00:24:12 --> 00:24:15 blackouts. Adaptive optics systems like
00:24:15 --> 00:24:17 that used on Kona use a mirror that continually
00:24:17 --> 00:24:20 reshapes itself 2 times every second
00:24:20 --> 00:24:23 in order to counteract the image degradation caused by
00:24:23 --> 00:24:26 turbulent air. I guess you can describe adaptive
00:24:26 --> 00:24:29 optics as sort of being like pumped up autofocus and
00:24:29 --> 00:24:31 optical image stabilization in your smartphone camera,
00:24:31 --> 00:24:34 but correcting the errors for the atmosphere rather than the
00:24:34 --> 00:24:37 user's shaky hands. Since the early
00:24:37 --> 00:24:39 2000s, adaptive optics have been used by large
00:24:39 --> 00:24:42 telescopes, including solar observatories, to study the
00:24:42 --> 00:24:45 Sun's surface, enabling scientists to reach their
00:24:45 --> 00:24:48 theoretical diffraction limits, I.e. the theoretical
00:24:48 --> 00:24:50 maximum resolution of an optical system.
00:24:50 --> 00:24:53 These systems have since revolutionized observing the Sun's
00:24:53 --> 00:24:56 surface, But until now, they have not been used for observing the
00:24:56 --> 00:24:59 corona. And the resolution features beyond the solar
00:24:59 --> 00:25:01 limb stagnated at an order of
00:25:01 --> 00:25:04 1000km or worse. Same levels were
00:25:04 --> 00:25:07 achieved 80 years ago. And that's where this new coronal
00:25:07 --> 00:25:10 adaptive optics system comes in. It closes that
00:25:10 --> 00:25:13 decades old gap, delivering images of coronal features
00:25:13 --> 00:25:16 at 63 kilometer resolution, which is the theoretical
00:25:16 --> 00:25:18 limit of a 1.6 meter telescope.
00:25:18 --> 00:25:20 This is space time.
00:25:22 --> 00:25:24 This episode of space time is brought to you by
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00:26:43 --> 00:26:45 you've got to be one of the first 30 standard package
00:26:45 --> 00:26:48 purchases. For more information, be sure to check out
00:26:48 --> 00:26:51 the links in our show notes. Once again that
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00:26:54 --> 00:26:56 use the promo code SpaceTime.
00:26:56 --> 00:26:58 And now it's back to our show
00:27:09 --> 00:27:12 and time. Now to take another brief look at some of the other stories making
00:27:12 --> 00:27:15 use in Science this week with the Science Report,
00:27:16 --> 00:27:19 scientists say they've created a new device that can detect atrial
00:27:19 --> 00:27:21 fibrillation without needing to touch a patient.
00:27:22 --> 00:27:25 Atrial fibrillation, or afib, is an irregular and
00:27:25 --> 00:27:27 often rapid heartbeat, which can be fatal.
00:27:27 --> 00:27:30 Usually, this kind of heart issue is diagnosed with the help of an
00:27:30 --> 00:27:33 electrocardiogram, a device that's connected to the body
00:27:33 --> 00:27:36 and M measures the heart's electrical signals. But a report
00:27:36 --> 00:27:39 in the journal Nature Communications claims researchers say they can
00:27:39 --> 00:27:42 now perform the same monitoring with radar sensing.
00:27:42 --> 00:27:45 The authors evaluated the system using data from over
00:27:45 --> 00:27:48 6 patients that included 229
00:27:48 --> 00:27:50 with afib, and they say it showed comparable
00:27:50 --> 00:27:52 results to a standard ecg.
00:27:54 --> 00:27:57 A new study claims that people who value personal
00:27:57 --> 00:28:00 success, excitement and the challenges of life, as
00:28:00 --> 00:28:03 well as control over other people and resources, are also
00:28:03 --> 00:28:06 more likely to be vegetarians. The
00:28:06 --> 00:28:08 findings, reported in the journal PLOS One, also suggest
00:28:08 --> 00:28:11 that these differences indicate that people who adopt a vegetarian
00:28:11 --> 00:28:14 diet tend to be independent thinkers who aren't
00:28:14 --> 00:28:17 afraid to march to the beat of a different drum.
00:28:17 --> 00:28:20 Fascinatingly, the same study also found that non
00:28:20 --> 00:28:22 vegetarians are more likely to value other people's
00:28:22 --> 00:28:25 welfare, other people's safety and the harmony of
00:28:25 --> 00:28:28 society and social cohesion. The authors
00:28:28 --> 00:28:31 reached their conclusions by analyzing data from three studies in
00:28:31 --> 00:28:34 the United States and Poland in which people were surveyed on their
00:28:34 --> 00:28:37 dietary habits and answered a series of questions on the basic
00:28:37 --> 00:28:40 human values which are important to them. They found
00:28:40 --> 00:28:42 that vegetarians prized basic human values of
00:28:42 --> 00:28:45 stimulation, achievement and power to be more important
00:28:45 --> 00:28:48 than non vegetarians, while non vegetarians
00:28:48 --> 00:28:51 found benevolence, security and conformity
00:28:51 --> 00:28:54 to be more important. The authors admit that these new
00:28:54 --> 00:28:57 results are somewhat at odds with how vegetarianism
00:28:57 --> 00:28:58 is often discussed.
00:29:00 --> 00:29:03 A new study has found that urine, not water, is the
00:29:03 --> 00:29:05 most efficient production method to generate green
00:29:05 --> 00:29:08 hydrogen. The researchers have now developed two
00:29:08 --> 00:29:11 unique energy efficient and cost effective systems that
00:29:11 --> 00:29:14 use urea found in urine and wastewater to
00:29:14 --> 00:29:16 generate hydrogen. A report in the journal Nature
00:29:16 --> 00:29:19 Communications claims the findings show a new pathway to
00:29:19 --> 00:29:22 economically generate green hydrogen, a sustainable and
00:29:22 --> 00:29:25 renewable energy source, and the potential to remediate
00:29:25 --> 00:29:27 nitrogen waste in aquatic systems.
00:29:28 --> 00:29:31 Samsung have just released their latest smartphone, the new
00:29:31 --> 00:29:34 lightweight S25 Edge. With the
00:29:34 --> 00:29:37 details, we're joined by Technology editor Alex Saharov. Roy
00:29:37 --> 00:29:39 from Tech Advice Start Life there's.
00:29:39 --> 00:29:42 Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Been a lot of talk that Apple was going to launch the iPhone 17
00:29:42 --> 00:29:44 Air in 2025 and that was going to be a
00:29:44 --> 00:29:47 5.5 millimeter phone, very thin and it would be
00:29:47 --> 00:29:50 replacing the iPhone 17 plus,
00:29:50 --> 00:29:53 although they might still have that. So knowing this was, you
00:29:53 --> 00:29:56 know, heavily rumored, Samsung decided to gazump
00:29:56 --> 00:29:59 Apple and when they showcased their S25 range
00:29:59 --> 00:30:02 in January this year, the very last thing they showed was the
00:30:02 --> 00:30:05 Samsung S25 Edge. Now this has now come on to
00:30:05 --> 00:30:07 pre sale. I managed to get one in my little
00:30:07 --> 00:30:10 hands today and it is 5.8
00:30:10 --> 00:30:13 millimeters thick. So it's very thin. It's much thinner
00:30:13 --> 00:30:16 than the Samsung S25 Ultra and
00:30:16 --> 00:30:18 thinner than the Samsung A56 mid range
00:30:18 --> 00:30:21 phone. It's about 50 grams lighter than the S25
00:30:21 --> 00:30:24 Ultra, so it's noticeably lighter than the most premium phone. You do
00:30:24 --> 00:30:27 only get two cameras on the back as opposed to the five on the
00:30:27 --> 00:30:30 S25 Ultra. There's obviously no stylus and
00:30:30 --> 00:30:33 you have a 3 milliamp
00:30:33 --> 00:30:35 hour battery as opposed to the 5 milliamp hour
00:30:35 --> 00:30:38 batteries you find on mini of the premium phones today, even the mid
00:30:38 --> 00:30:41 range phone. So you will have to charge it a bit more often
00:30:41 --> 00:30:44 if you're a heavy user of it. We're yet to see the full
00:30:44 --> 00:30:47 ramifications of this in terms of battery life, but
00:30:47 --> 00:30:50 I'm not terribly worried that People are going to be too concerned. And
00:30:50 --> 00:30:52 Apple's battery is meant to be 2
00:30:53 --> 00:30:55 milliamp hours, according to the rumors, although they
00:30:55 --> 00:30:58 are supposed to be using a different battery chemistry that
00:30:58 --> 00:31:00 will give it more capacity than what
00:31:00 --> 00:31:03 2 milliamp hours would normally give you. So
00:31:03 --> 00:31:06 again, we're yet to see in that regard. But holding the phone,
00:31:06 --> 00:31:09 it's delightful. I mean, it's light. They haven't tried betting it, but
00:31:09 --> 00:31:11 people on the Internet say they haven't.
00:31:11 --> 00:31:13 Stuart Gary: They said it's very robust, back pocket and sit down.
00:31:13 --> 00:31:14 That's the test.
00:31:14 --> 00:31:17 Alex Zaharov-Reutt: Well, yes, yes, but I mean, look, they would have done all sorts of stress tests
00:31:17 --> 00:31:20 because there was a huge kerfuffle over the iPhone 6, which was
00:31:20 --> 00:31:23 supposedly bending in people's back pockets when they were doing this. And look,
00:31:23 --> 00:31:26 you're going to buy a case for it, going to be careful with it. I mean, you know, you
00:31:26 --> 00:31:29 don't want to be, manhandling a phone that at The Moment
00:31:29 --> 00:31:32 costs $1 in Australia for
00:31:32 --> 00:31:35 the 512 gig version. There is also a 256
00:31:35 --> 00:31:37 gig version, which is the one that I have though. The age of thin
00:31:37 --> 00:31:38 phones is upon us.
00:31:38 --> 00:31:41 Stuart Gary: That's Alex Zaharov-Reutt from Teg Advice, dot Life.
00:31:56 --> 00:31:59 And that's the show for now. Space Time
00:31:59 --> 00:32:02 is available every Monday, Wednesday and Friday through
00:32:02 --> 00:32:05 Apple Podcasts, itunes, Stitcher, Google
00:32:05 --> 00:32:07 Podcast, Pocketcasts, Spotify,
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00:32:09 --> 00:32:12 bitesz.com, soundcloud, YouTube Music,
00:32:12 --> 00:32:15 your favorite podcast download provider, and from
00:32:15 --> 00:32:17 spacetimewithstuartgary.com
00:32:18 --> 00:32:21 spacetime's also broadcast through the National Science
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