Discovering the Moon's True Age, Perseverance's Ascent, and the Enigma of Pink Sands: S27E154

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[00:01:25] This is Space Time Series 27 Episode 154 for broadcast on the 23rd of December 2024.

[00:01:32] Coming up on Space Time.

[00:01:34] New studies showing the moon's actually a lot older than we thought.

[00:01:38] NASA's Perseverance rover finally crests the top of Jezero craters rim.

[00:01:43] And understanding the tectonic mystery behind South Australia's strange pink beet sands.

[00:01:49] All that and more coming up on Space Time.

[00:01:54] Welcome to Space Time with Stuart Garry.

[00:02:13] New researchers discovered that the Earth's moon may be an awful lot older than we thought.

[00:02:18] Scientists found evidence suggesting that the moon's crust underwent extensive re-melting around 4.35 billion years ago.

[00:02:26] And that would have masked a far older history.

[00:02:30] The moon's thought to have been formed when a Mars-sized planet which scientists have named Thea collided with the early proto-Earth around 4.5 billion years ago.

[00:02:39] The colossal impact turned both bodies into a magma ocean of melted rocks,

[00:02:44] which eventually coalesced and solidified to form the Earth.

[00:02:48] However, some of the ejected debris from that impact was thrown up into orbit around the Earth,

[00:02:53] and it gradually accreted and solidified to form the moon.

[00:02:57] However, this new research argues that there was a period well after that when the moon's surface was melted again

[00:03:02] and changed the appearance of certain rock samples that made them look younger than what they really were.

[00:03:08] Now, if this evidence is accurate, it means the Earth's moon's actually around 4.53 billion years old.

[00:03:14] It's all very confusing.

[00:03:17] Previous attempts to uncover the moon's true age have yielded estimates that lie several hundred million years apart.

[00:03:23] While some researchers suggest that our cosmic companion was formed 4.35 billion years ago,

[00:03:29] others date the birth at 4.51 and now 4.53.

[00:03:33] One of the most striking inconsistencies is of a stony nature.

[00:03:37] You see, almost all the lunar rock samples we have here on Earth point to the younger age.

[00:03:43] In the millions of years that followed the giant impact,

[00:03:46] the newly formed moon cooled and moved further and further away from the Earth

[00:03:50] until it reached its current orbit at a distance of around 384,400 kilometres.

[00:03:55] It's still moving away from the Earth today at a couple of centimetres every year.

[00:04:00] The study's lead author, Francis Nemo from the University of California, Santa Cruz,

[00:04:04] says his team were especially interested in the phase when the distance between the Earth and the moon

[00:04:09] was just a third of today's distance.

[00:04:12] Now, at that time, there were various differences in the position and shape of the moon's orbit.

[00:04:17] Now, among other things, it became far more elliptical,

[00:04:20] so that the orbital speed of the moon at its distance from the Earth varied considerably within each orbit.

[00:04:26] And the thing is, that would have generated an awful lot of gravitational tidal heating,

[00:04:30] partially melting the lunar interior.

[00:04:32] Now, all this is similar to what we see today with Jupiter's moon Io,

[00:04:37] which travels around the gas giant in a slightly elliptical orbit.

[00:04:40] The enormous tidal forces of Jupiter, together with that of Io's other companion moons,

[00:04:45] causes the moon to be constantly stretched and squeezed,

[00:04:48] generating friction and consequently heat.

[00:04:51] And all that makes Io the most volcanically active body in the solar system.

[00:04:55] And based on this new study, Earth's moon went through a similar phase.

[00:05:00] Nemo and colleagues' calculations suggested the heat flow from the lunar interior was sufficient to melt and churn through the entire mantle.

[00:05:08] Now, while a magma ocean never covered the entire lunar surface, over the course of several million years,

[00:05:14] the heat from the interior gradually reached pretty well every part of the surface,

[00:05:18] liquefying most of the crust, possibly several times over.

[00:05:21] Now, the authors say that in some places the hot lava penetrated right through to the surface.

[00:05:26] In others, magma was injected beneath the surface, heating the rocks around it.

[00:05:31] And this volcanic history is decisive for determining the age of crustal rocks.

[00:05:36] Now, when they form, rocks, including those on the moon, contain various radioactive isotopes.

[00:05:43] Isotopes are variations of certain atoms that differ in the number of neutrons they have in their nucleus.

[00:05:48] Now, as long as the rock's hot, it can exchange isotopes with its surroundings.

[00:05:52] But as it cools, those isotopes become locked in and the composition becomes set.

[00:05:58] Then, the trapped isotopes begin to radioactively decay, and so the geological clock starts ticking.

[00:06:05] Lunar rock samples, therefore, don't reveal their original age, but only the age when they were last strongly heated.

[00:06:12] However, there are some unique crystals in rocks known as zircons that are extremely tough and heat resistant.

[00:06:18] And uranium atoms trapped inside these crystals decay into lead atoms at a set rate.

[00:06:23] So, by comparing the ratio of uranium to lead inside zircon crystals,

[00:06:28] astronomers can determine the exact age when the zircon crystals were first formed.

[00:06:33] And they're showing a more distant, earlier history than other crustal rocks, and so are telling a different story.

[00:06:39] The violent volcanism shaped the moon's crust around 4.35 billion years ago.

[00:06:44] But the zircons are much older, at 4.53 billion years.

[00:06:49] And the story doesn't end there.

[00:06:51] These new findings are also resolving many other contradictions that had previously puzzled astronomers.

[00:06:57] For example, the comparatively few craters on the moon argues against its old age.

[00:07:02] In such a long time, astronomers think our cosmic neighbour should have witnessed more impacts.

[00:07:07] Lunar volcanism now offers an explanation.

[00:07:11] Lava from the moon's interior would have filled the early impact craters and thus made them unrecognisable.

[00:07:17] The composition of the lunar mantle also posed a problem.

[00:07:20] This is the layer of rock that lies directly beneath the moon's crust.

[00:07:24] And its composition differs from that of the Earth in several key aspects.

[00:07:28] However, if the moon's interior melted a second time round, as this new study would indicate,

[00:07:34] some substances could have sunk from the mantle down to the iron core below.

[00:07:38] And that would explain the compositional differences between the moon's mantle and parts of the Earth.

[00:07:43] The new results mean that all the pieces of the puzzle that previously didn't fit together are now forming a coherent overall picture of our lunar partner's formation.

[00:07:53] It puts a full stop at the end of the story.

[00:07:57] This is Space Time.

[00:07:59] Still to come, NASA's Perseverance rover finally crests the top of Jezero craters' rim,

[00:08:05] and planetary plate tectonics are solving the mystery of South Australia's strange pink beach sands.

[00:08:12] All that and more still to come on Space Time.

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[00:10:42] There are celebrations at JPL today with NASA's Mars Perseverance rover finally cresting the very top of Jezero Crater's rim.

[00:10:50] And mission managers say the road ahead will be even more scientifically intriguing.

[00:10:55] And the good news is it'll probably be somewhat easier going now that the six-wheeled car-sized mobile laboratory has completed its long climb to the top.

[00:11:04] Perseverance crested the top of Jezero's rim at a location known as Lookout Hill,

[00:11:09] and it's now rolling towards what will be its first new science stop following its month-long climb.

[00:11:14] The rover made the ascent in order to explore a region of Mars unlike anywhere it had investigated before.

[00:11:21] Taking about three and a half months and ascending over half a kilometre in elevation,

[00:11:26] the rover climbed 20-degree grades, often in slippery, sandy conditions,

[00:11:30] making stops along the way for scientific observations.

[00:11:34] Since landing in Jezero Crater back in February 2021,

[00:11:38] the Mars Perseverance rover has completed four science campaigns.

[00:11:42] There was the crater floor, then the fan front,

[00:11:45] the fan being the build-up of river delta sediment,

[00:11:48] then the upper fan, and finally the margin unit.

[00:11:51] The science team are calling what will be Perseverance's fifth scientific campaign the Northern Rim.

[00:11:56] That's because the route will cover the northern part of the southwestern section of Jezero's rim.

[00:12:02] Perseverance's Deputy Project Manager Stephen Lee from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California,

[00:12:07] says that over the first year of the Northern Rim campaign,

[00:12:10] the rover is expected to visit four sites of geological interest,

[00:12:14] take several samples, and drive about 6.4 kilometres.

[00:12:18] The Northern Rim campaign brings completely new scientific riches,

[00:12:22] as Perseverance roves into fundamentally new geology.

[00:12:25] That's because it marks the transition from rocks that were partially filled in Jezero Crater

[00:12:30] when it was formed by a massive impact about 3.9 billion years ago,

[00:12:34] to the rocks from deep inside Mars that are ejected upwards from the crater rim as a result of that impact.

[00:12:41] Scientists believe that these new rocks will represent pieces of the early Martian crust,

[00:12:46] and therefore will be among the oldest rocks found anywhere in the solar system.

[00:12:50] Investigating them could help science understand what Mars,

[00:12:53] and for that matter the Earth, may have looked like,

[00:12:56] just after the solar system formed and planets began to solidify,

[00:12:59] 4.6 billion years ago.

[00:13:01] With Lookout Hill now in its rear-view mirror,

[00:13:04] Perseverance is headed for a scientifically significant rock outcrop

[00:13:07] about 450 metres down the other side of the rim,

[00:13:10] known as Witch Hazel Hill.

[00:13:12] Witch Hazel Hill represents over 100 metres of layered outcrop,

[00:13:16] where each layer is like a page in a Martian geological history book.

[00:13:20] So, as Perseverance drives down the hill,

[00:13:22] it's sort of going back in time,

[00:13:24] investigating the ancient environments of Mars recorded in the crater rim.

[00:13:29] Then, after a steep descent,

[00:13:31] Perseverance will turn its wheels away from the crater rim

[00:13:33] and head towards Lac de Chemez,

[00:13:35] about three kilometres further south.

[00:13:38] Lac de Chemez intrigues scientists

[00:13:40] because being located on the plains beyond the rim,

[00:13:43] it's far less likely to have been significantly affected

[00:13:45] by the formation of Jezero Crater.

[00:13:47] After leaving Lac de Chemez,

[00:13:50] the road will traverse about 1.6 kilometres back to the rim

[00:13:53] in order to investigate a stunning outcrop of large blocks

[00:13:56] known as Megabrecchia.

[00:13:58] These blocks may represent ancient bedrock

[00:14:01] broken up during the Asidius Impact,

[00:14:03] a planet-altering event

[00:14:04] that likely excavated deep into the Martian crust

[00:14:07] as it created an impact basin some 1,200 kilometres wide

[00:14:10] 3.9 billion years ago.

[00:14:13] Needless to say,

[00:14:14] it means interesting times ahead.

[00:14:16] This is Space Time.

[00:14:19] Still to come,

[00:14:20] the mystery of South Australia's strange pink sands

[00:14:22] and later in the science report,

[00:14:24] a new study shows that guys tend to head to the bar faster

[00:14:27] when the women are scarce.

[00:14:29] All that and more still to come

[00:14:31] on Space Time.

[00:14:47] The posits of strange deep pink sand

[00:14:50] washing up on South Australian beaches

[00:14:52] is shedding new light

[00:14:53] on when the Australian tectonic plate

[00:14:56] began to subduct beneath the Pacific plate.

[00:14:58] And the findings,

[00:15:00] reported in the journal Communications Earth and Environment,

[00:15:02] are also exposing the existence

[00:15:04] of a previously unknown ancient Antarctic mountain range.

[00:15:08] The pink sands are composed of a mineral called garnet.

[00:15:12] Now, garnet's known to have formed locally

[00:15:14] during the Delamerian Orogeny,

[00:15:16] an event which created the Adelaide Fold Belt

[00:15:18] around 514 to 490 million years ago,

[00:15:21] and also during the formation of the Gorla Craton

[00:15:24] in Western South Australia

[00:15:25] between 3.3 and 1.4 billion years ago.

[00:15:28] The problem is these ages

[00:15:30] don't match up with the garnet sands

[00:15:32] now being found on South Australian seashores.

[00:15:35] One of the study's authors,

[00:15:36] Shamin Verhad from the University of Adelaide,

[00:15:39] says new dating shows that the garnet grains

[00:15:41] are around 590 million years old.

[00:15:44] That's too young to have come from the Gorla Craton

[00:15:47] and far too old to have come

[00:15:48] from the eroding Adelaide Fold Belt.

[00:15:50] The authors were able to establish the new date

[00:15:53] using a new luteum-hafnium laser mass spectrometer technique.

[00:15:57] Garnet requires high temperatures to form

[00:15:59] and is usually associated with the formation

[00:16:01] of large mountain belts.

[00:16:03] But the 590 million year old age window

[00:16:06] was a time when the South Australian crust

[00:16:08] was comparatively cool and non-mountainous.

[00:16:11] And Verhad and colleagues were able to establish

[00:16:12] that this garnet didn't originate from local source rocks.

[00:16:16] The thing is it must have originated nearby

[00:16:18] because garnet is typically destroyed

[00:16:20] through prolonged exposure to marine environments.

[00:16:23] Now the authors have discovered

[00:16:25] that the glacial sedimentary deposits

[00:16:26] of the Cape Jervis Formation,

[00:16:28] outcropping along the South Australian shorelines,

[00:16:30] contains layers of sand which also contain garnet.

[00:16:33] That's also around 590 million years old.

[00:16:37] And ice flow indicators in these glacial sedimentary deposits

[00:16:40] suggest that the garnet-rich glacial sands

[00:16:43] were brought to Australia

[00:16:44] by a northwesterly moving ice sheet

[00:16:46] during the late Paleozoic Ice Age,

[00:16:48] when Australia and Antarctica were attached

[00:16:51] as part of the supercontinent Gondwana.

[00:16:54] And here's where it gets really interesting.

[00:16:56] Ghana, dating back to the same period,

[00:16:58] has also been found in an outcrop

[00:17:00] in the Trans-Antarctic Mountains in East Antarctica,

[00:17:03] right at the edge of a colossal area

[00:17:05] completely concealed by a thick ice sheet.

[00:17:07] And researchers believe that this area

[00:17:09] contains evidence for a 590 million year old mountain belt

[00:17:13] hiding below the Antarctic ice.

[00:17:15] Now, while it's not currently possible

[00:17:18] to sample directly under this ice sheet,

[00:17:19] it's conceivable that millions of years of ice transport

[00:17:23] eroded the bedrock underneath

[00:17:24] and transported this garnet northwestwards

[00:17:27] towards the conjugate Antarctic-Australian margin.

[00:17:30] The garnet deposits were then locally stored

[00:17:32] in glacial sedimentary deposits

[00:17:34] along the southern Australian margin

[00:17:35] until fresh erosion liberated them

[00:17:38] and waves and tides concentrated them

[00:17:40] on South Australian beaches.

[00:17:42] So, these findings are suggesting the discovery

[00:17:45] of a major mountain building event

[00:17:47] that redefines the timing of the onset of convergence

[00:17:50] in the Pacific Ocean.

[00:17:52] Bahat says it's fascinating to think

[00:17:54] scientists were able to trace tiny grains of sand

[00:17:57] on a beach in Australia

[00:17:58] to a previously undiscovered mountain range

[00:18:00] buried deep below the Antarctic ice.

[00:18:03] Usually, if we see pink beach sand

[00:18:05] that contain a lot of garnets,

[00:18:07] the garnets must have been eroded from somewhere.

[00:18:09] Like, it could be if there's, like,

[00:18:11] a mountain belt close by.

[00:18:13] For example, if you would go to the Himalaya

[00:18:15] and you would walk through the Himalayan Farland Basin

[00:18:18] and you'd be walking along the rivers and the beaches,

[00:18:20] you might find a lot of garnets in there

[00:18:22] because they usually occur

[00:18:24] in highly metamorphic mountain ranges

[00:18:27] such as the Himalaya.

[00:18:28] So, in the case of South Australia,

[00:18:30] when we were walking along the beaches

[00:18:32] and we saw that the beaches

[00:18:33] contain a lot of those pink garnets

[00:18:36] and we were just wondering

[00:18:37] where could they be coming from

[00:18:38] because we don't really have

[00:18:39] a big existing mountain range nearby

[00:18:42] here in South Australia.

[00:18:43] We do have the Adelaide Fall Belt

[00:18:45] which contains garnets

[00:18:47] and it has some form of topography

[00:18:50] but it isn't really a big,

[00:18:51] impressive mountain range or anything.

[00:18:54] And there isn't a large volume of garnets

[00:18:56] in the Adelaide Fall Belt,

[00:18:58] not large enough for it to erode

[00:19:00] that many garnets

[00:19:01] along all the beaches

[00:19:02] around South Australia.

[00:19:03] So, we were like,

[00:19:05] how can we try to solve this problem?

[00:19:07] And at the time

[00:19:08] when we found those pink garnets

[00:19:10] on the beach,

[00:19:11] we actually were developing

[00:19:13] a new dating method

[00:19:15] that we could apply

[00:19:16] to garnets as well.

[00:19:18] So, at the time

[00:19:19] when we found those garnets,

[00:19:20] we were like,

[00:19:21] why don't we just try

[00:19:22] to analyze those garnets

[00:19:23] and see what age we get from them?

[00:19:25] Because that's the easiest way

[00:19:27] to match certain garnets

[00:19:29] to certain basement rocks.

[00:19:31] Once we got our ages back

[00:19:33] from our laser sessions,

[00:19:35] we realized that

[00:19:36] that just gave us another question

[00:19:38] because the ages we got

[00:19:39] from those garnets

[00:19:40] didn't line up with anything.

[00:19:41] So, they were too young

[00:19:42] to be from the Adelaide

[00:19:43] Galler Creighton

[00:19:44] and then they were too old

[00:19:46] to come from the Fall Belt.

[00:19:47] So, we were wondering

[00:19:49] what could be another source

[00:19:50] for those garnets

[00:19:51] and the only possible option

[00:19:53] close by

[00:19:54] was the burning glacial sediments

[00:19:57] that are also cropping out

[00:19:58] along South Australia

[00:20:00] which we found out

[00:20:02] also contain a lot of garnets.

[00:20:03] So, we decided to sample

[00:20:05] those glacial sands as well.

[00:20:07] So, we scooped some sand

[00:20:08] from the glacial sands

[00:20:10] which had a lot of garnets in them

[00:20:11] and we tried to analyze

[00:20:12] those as well.

[00:20:13] And then when we got

[00:20:14] our results back,

[00:20:15] we realized that

[00:20:16] the garnets from the glacial sands

[00:20:18] had the same age

[00:20:19] as the garnets on the beach

[00:20:20] so we found our map.

[00:20:21] And where would they

[00:20:22] have come from?

[00:20:23] That's the problem

[00:20:23] with glacial sediments.

[00:20:25] So, we know that

[00:20:25] glacial sediments

[00:20:26] if there's indicators

[00:20:28] that they were deposited

[00:20:29] by large ice sheets

[00:20:30] we know that they aren't

[00:20:31] originally from this location

[00:20:33] so a big massive ice sheet

[00:20:35] must have brought them

[00:20:36] to South Australia

[00:20:37] during the glaciation

[00:20:38] of the ice sheet.

[00:20:40] So, the glaciation

[00:20:40] we're talking about

[00:20:41] is the late Paleozoic Ice Age

[00:20:43] which occurred around

[00:20:45] the Bermuda carbon

[00:20:46] is first time zones.

[00:20:47] So, at that time

[00:20:48] looking at all

[00:20:50] late tectonic reconstructions

[00:20:51] we know that

[00:20:52] South Australia

[00:20:53] was connected

[00:20:54] to East Antarctica

[00:20:55] back in the days.

[00:20:56] So, if we're thinking

[00:20:57] about ice sheet movement

[00:20:58] you can look at

[00:20:59] the sands

[00:21:00] and you can look

[00:21:00] at the pebbles

[00:21:01] and see what

[00:21:02] the lithologies

[00:21:03] of these pebbles are.

[00:21:04] So, are they sandstone?

[00:21:05] Are they metamorphic rocks?

[00:21:07] Where could they be coming from?

[00:21:09] And then those pebbles

[00:21:10] they can have marks in them

[00:21:11] gather marks

[00:21:12] or troughs

[00:21:13] that can indicate

[00:21:14] what way

[00:21:15] the ice sheet was flowing.

[00:21:16] So, in this case

[00:21:17] we found out

[00:21:18] that through other researchers

[00:21:19] who had been studying

[00:21:20] this before

[00:21:21] they concluded

[00:21:22] that the ice sheet

[00:21:23] must have come from

[00:21:24] a source

[00:21:25] somewhere

[00:21:25] southeast to us.

[00:21:27] So, if you would look back

[00:21:28] at the Blade Tectonic reconstruction

[00:21:29] and you would go

[00:21:31] southeast

[00:21:31] from the Adelaide area

[00:21:33] you would end up

[00:21:34] in East Antarctica.

[00:21:35] Wow.

[00:21:35] That sort of

[00:21:36] puts the cherry

[00:21:37] on the cake

[00:21:38] doesn't it?

[00:21:38] Yeah.

[00:21:38] It's a detective story

[00:21:40] isn't it?

[00:21:40] It is.

[00:21:41] It kind of is

[00:21:42] and we didn't expect

[00:21:43] to find an outcome

[00:21:45] as exciting as this one

[00:21:46] because once we figured out

[00:21:47] that they might have been

[00:21:48] coming from East Antarctica

[00:21:49] we're pretty certain they are.

[00:21:51] We realized that there isn't

[00:21:52] really anything

[00:21:53] of the same age

[00:21:54] so we're talking

[00:21:55] about an age

[00:21:56] around 590 million years ago

[00:21:58] which is in the

[00:21:59] Ediacaran time period.

[00:22:00] We don't really find

[00:22:01] any mountains

[00:22:03] or outcrops

[00:22:04] in East Antarctica

[00:22:04] with that age

[00:22:05] because obviously

[00:22:06] East Antarctica

[00:22:07] is covered by

[00:22:08] a large ice sheet

[00:22:09] and most of the geology

[00:22:10] in East Antarctica

[00:22:11] is hidden beneath

[00:22:12] that ice sheet

[00:22:12] and based on

[00:22:14] I think there was

[00:22:15] one small outcrop

[00:22:16] in the Transantarctic mountains

[00:22:17] where they got

[00:22:18] a similar age

[00:22:19] for the granite

[00:22:19] but it's so far away

[00:22:20] so we assume

[00:22:22] or we suspect

[00:22:23] that there might be

[00:22:24] a large geological

[00:22:25] province

[00:22:26] underneath the ice sheet

[00:22:27] an old ancient

[00:22:28] mountain belt

[00:22:29] that was eroded

[00:22:29] by the ice sheet

[00:22:30] in the late

[00:22:31] Philozoic Ice Age

[00:22:33] that we now find

[00:22:34] like in South Australia

[00:22:35] but that's now

[00:22:36] hidden in the ice

[00:22:37] underneath the ice

[00:22:37] in East Antarctica

[00:22:38] and we don't know

[00:22:39] if he'd ever be able

[00:22:40] to drill into it

[00:22:41] or find it

[00:22:41] if it wasn't

[00:22:42] for the study.

[00:22:43] Garnets

[00:22:43] when the average

[00:22:44] person thinks

[00:22:45] of garnets

[00:22:45] they think of

[00:22:46] a gemstone

[00:22:47] something pretty

[00:22:47] to put in a ring

[00:22:48] or on a necklace

[00:22:49] tell me about garnets

[00:22:50] how are they made?

[00:22:51] Yeah so garnets

[00:22:52] are in fact

[00:22:53] really pretty minerals

[00:22:54] so you often

[00:22:55] find them in

[00:22:56] colour red

[00:22:57] or pink

[00:22:58] and they're

[00:22:58] translucent

[00:22:59] so if you find

[00:23:00] a very clear

[00:23:01] mineral that doesn't

[00:23:02] really have inclusions

[00:23:03] it's really nice

[00:23:04] to put them

[00:23:05] in jewellery

[00:23:05] as you just said

[00:23:06] so garnet

[00:23:07] is a metamorphic

[00:23:08] mineral

[00:23:09] which means

[00:23:09] that it grows

[00:23:10] when deep

[00:23:12] in the earth's

[00:23:12] crust

[00:23:13] you've got

[00:23:13] very high

[00:23:14] temperatures

[00:23:15] and pressures

[00:23:16] pushing all the

[00:23:17] rocks together

[00:23:17] and because of

[00:23:18] this heat

[00:23:19] and this pressure

[00:23:20] your rocks

[00:23:21] will start melting

[00:23:21] and they will

[00:23:22] start forming

[00:23:23] another rock

[00:23:24] so in this case

[00:23:25] for garnets

[00:23:26] it's usually

[00:23:27] when you have

[00:23:28] old mudstones

[00:23:29] or sedimentary rocks

[00:23:30] that get buried

[00:23:31] very deep

[00:23:32] into the crust

[00:23:33] of the earth

[00:23:33] and you have

[00:23:34] an ongoing

[00:23:35] mountain building

[00:23:36] process

[00:23:36] which is

[00:23:37] pushing everything

[00:23:38] together

[00:23:38] so it's got

[00:23:39] two continents

[00:23:39] trying to

[00:23:40] mix each other

[00:23:42] that's when

[00:23:42] you start

[00:23:42] forming

[00:23:43] garnets

[00:23:44] so you need

[00:23:44] pressure

[00:23:45] and temperature

[00:23:45] conditions

[00:23:46] that are high

[00:23:47] enough

[00:23:47] for garnet

[00:23:47] to form

[00:23:48] and then

[00:23:48] after some

[00:23:50] time

[00:23:50] when the

[00:23:50] garnet

[00:23:50] has been

[00:23:51] sitting

[00:23:51] in the

[00:23:51] rock

[00:23:52] it'll start

[00:23:52] getting eroded

[00:23:53] so when

[00:23:54] everything

[00:23:54] or all the

[00:23:55] rocks

[00:23:55] above

[00:23:56] the unit

[00:23:57] with the

[00:23:57] garnet

[00:23:57] is eroded

[00:23:58] that's when

[00:23:59] you will

[00:23:59] see

[00:23:59] garnet

[00:24:00] at the

[00:24:00] earth

[00:24:00] surface

[00:24:01] which isn't

[00:24:01] very common

[00:24:02] that's

[00:24:03] Charmaine

[00:24:03] Verhard

[00:24:03] from the

[00:24:04] University

[00:24:04] of Adelaide

[00:24:05] and this

[00:24:06] is

[00:24:06] space time

[00:24:22] Wünschst

[00:24:22] du dir

[00:24:22] jemanden

[00:24:23] der

[00:24:23] dich

[00:24:23] versteht

[00:24:24] wie

[00:24:24] kein

[00:24:24] anderer

[00:24:25] jemand

[00:24:26] der

[00:24:26] deine

[00:24:26] wünsche

[00:24:27] wahr

[00:24:27] werden

[00:24:27] lässt

[00:24:27] und

[00:24:28] mit

[00:24:28] dir

[00:24:28] das

[00:24:28] schönste

[00:24:29] abenteuer

[00:24:29] deines

[00:24:30] lebens

[00:24:30] erleben

[00:24:31] möchte

[00:24:31] die

[00:24:32] commerce

[00:24:33] plattform

[00:24:33] shopify

[00:24:34] revolutioniert

[00:24:35] millionen

[00:24:35] von

[00:24:50] ebay

[00:24:51] und co

[00:24:51] werben

[00:24:51] und

[00:24:52] verkaufen

[00:24:52] neue

[00:24:53] zielgruppen

[00:24:54] zu erreichen

[00:24:54] war noch

[00:24:54] nie

[00:24:55] so

[00:24:55] einfach

[00:24:55] shopify

[00:24:57] bietet

[00:24:57] auf einer

[00:24:57] einzigen

[00:24:58] sicheren

[00:24:58] plattform

[00:24:59] alle

[00:24:59] tools

[00:24:59] um

[00:25:00] dein

[00:25:00] online

[00:25:00] business

[00:25:00] aufzubauen

[00:25:02] kostenlos

[00:25:03] testen

[00:25:03] und dein

[00:25:04] business

[00:25:04] der welt

[00:25:04] präsentieren

[00:25:05] shopify.de

[00:25:07] schrägstrich

[00:25:08] try

[00:25:08] besuchen

[00:25:08] einfach

[00:25:10] shopify.de

[00:25:11] schrägstrich

[00:25:11] try

[00:25:12] eingeben

[00:25:12] und loslegen

[00:25:13] made for

[00:25:14] germany

[00:25:15] powered

[00:25:16] by

[00:25:20] is making

[00:25:21] news

[00:25:21] in science

[00:25:21] this week

[00:25:22] with a

[00:25:22] science

[00:25:23] report.

[00:25:24] A new

[00:25:24] study

[00:25:25] has shown

[00:25:25] that

[00:25:25] ambulance

[00:25:26] and taxi

[00:25:26] drivers

[00:25:27] have the

[00:25:27] lowest levels

[00:25:28] of death

[00:25:28] due to

[00:25:29] Alzheimer's

[00:25:29] disease

[00:25:30] compared

[00:25:30] to other

[00:25:31] occupations.

[00:25:32] The findings

[00:25:33] reported in

[00:25:33] the British

[00:25:33] Medical

[00:25:34] Journal

[00:25:34] suggest

[00:25:35] that

[00:25:35] frequent

[00:25:36] spatial

[00:25:36] processing

[00:25:37] tasks

[00:25:37] might

[00:25:38] offer

[00:25:38] some

[00:25:38] protection

[00:25:39] against

[00:25:39] the

[00:25:40] illness.

[00:25:41] Scientists

[00:25:41] analysed

[00:25:42] death

[00:25:42] certificates

[00:25:43] for 443

[00:25:44] different

[00:25:44] occupations

[00:25:45] between

[00:25:45] 2020

[00:25:46] and

[00:25:46] 2023

[00:25:47] including

[00:25:48] cause

[00:25:48] of

[00:25:48] death,

[00:25:49] usual

[00:25:49] occupation

[00:25:50] and

[00:25:50] socio-demographic

[00:25:51] information.

[00:25:52] After adjusting

[00:25:53] for age

[00:25:54] and

[00:25:54] socio-demographic

[00:25:55] factors,

[00:25:56] the authors

[00:25:56] found that

[00:25:57] taxi drivers

[00:25:58] and ambulance

[00:25:59] drivers have

[00:25:59] the lowest

[00:26:00] proportion

[00:26:00] of deaths

[00:26:01] from

[00:26:01] Alzheimer's

[00:26:02] of all

[00:26:02] occupations

[00:26:03] examined

[00:26:03] and also

[00:26:04] when compared

[00:26:05] with the

[00:26:05] general

[00:26:05] population.

[00:26:06] But

[00:26:07] interestingly

[00:26:07] the authors

[00:26:08] noted

[00:26:08] that this

[00:26:09] trend

[00:26:09] wasn't

[00:26:09] seen

[00:26:09] in other

[00:26:10] transport

[00:26:10] related

[00:26:11] jobs

[00:26:11] such as

[00:26:12] bus

[00:26:12] drivers

[00:26:12] or

[00:26:13] aircraft

[00:26:13] pilots

[00:26:14] possibly

[00:26:14] due to

[00:26:15] their

[00:26:15] reliance

[00:26:15] on

[00:26:16] predetermined

[00:26:16] routes.

[00:26:18] ANSTO's

[00:26:19] Opal

[00:26:20] Nuclear

[00:26:20] Research

[00:26:20] Reactor

[00:26:21] at

[00:26:21] Lucas

[00:26:21] Heights

[00:26:22] in

[00:26:22] Sydney

[00:26:22] southern

[00:26:22] suburbs

[00:26:23] has

[00:26:23] officially

[00:26:24] powered

[00:26:24] back

[00:26:25] on

[00:26:25] and

[00:26:25] recommenced

[00:26:26] general

[00:26:26] operations.

[00:26:27] It follows

[00:26:28] a several

[00:26:29] months-long

[00:26:29] planned

[00:26:30] shutdown

[00:26:30] to carry

[00:26:31] out

[00:26:31] essential

[00:26:31] maintenance

[00:26:32] and

[00:26:32] upgrades.

[00:26:33] Central

[00:26:34] to these

[00:26:34] upgrades

[00:26:35] was the

[00:26:35] replacement

[00:26:35] of

[00:26:36] Opal's

[00:26:36] cold

[00:26:36] neutron

[00:26:37] source

[00:26:37] located

[00:26:38] next

[00:26:38] to

[00:26:38] the

[00:26:38] reactor's

[00:26:39] core.

[00:26:40] The

[00:26:40] three-meter

[00:26:40] tall

[00:26:41] device

[00:26:41] slows down

[00:26:42] neutrons

[00:26:43] as they

[00:26:43] travel from

[00:26:43] the

[00:26:44] Opal

[00:26:44] reactor

[00:26:44] through

[00:26:45] to

[00:26:45] the

[00:26:45] large

[00:26:45] scientific

[00:26:46] neutron

[00:26:46] beam

[00:26:47] instruments

[00:26:47] allowing

[00:26:48] researchers

[00:26:48] to look

[00:26:49] at the

[00:26:49] structure

[00:26:49] of

[00:26:50] materials

[00:26:50] in

[00:26:50] atomic

[00:26:51] detail.

[00:26:52] The

[00:26:52] planned

[00:26:52] shutdown

[00:26:53] also

[00:26:53] enabled

[00:26:54] extensive

[00:26:54] software

[00:26:55] and

[00:26:55] hardware

[00:26:55] upgrades

[00:26:56] to

[00:26:56] Opal's

[00:26:56] first

[00:26:57] reactor

[00:26:57] protection

[00:26:57] system

[00:26:58] a

[00:26:58] digital

[00:26:59] system

[00:26:59] that

[00:26:59] monitors

[00:27:00] the

[00:27:00] reactor's

[00:27:00] crucial

[00:27:00] parameters.

[00:27:02] The

[00:27:02] system

[00:27:02] is

[00:27:03] the

[00:27:03] first

[00:27:03] line

[00:27:03] of

[00:27:03] defence

[00:27:04] for

[00:27:04] Opal

[00:27:05] to

[00:27:05] automatically

[00:27:05] shut

[00:27:06] down

[00:27:06] safely

[00:27:06] if

[00:27:07] the

[00:27:07] parameters

[00:27:07] are

[00:27:07] exceeded.

[00:27:08] As

[00:27:09] Australia's

[00:27:10] only

[00:27:10] operational

[00:27:11] nuclear

[00:27:11] reactor

[00:27:12] Opal

[00:27:12] produces

[00:27:13] neutrons

[00:27:13] that

[00:27:14] form

[00:27:14] the

[00:27:14] radioisotopes

[00:27:15] required

[00:27:16] for

[00:27:16] nuclear

[00:27:16] medicines

[00:27:17] and

[00:27:17] they're

[00:27:17] used

[00:27:18] to

[00:27:18] diagnose

[00:27:18] a

[00:27:18] range

[00:27:19] of

[00:27:19] medical

[00:27:19] conditions

[00:27:20] and

[00:27:20] cancers.

[00:27:21] Opal

[00:27:22] also

[00:27:22] supplies

[00:27:22] more

[00:27:23] than

[00:27:23] half

[00:27:23] of

[00:27:23] the

[00:27:23] world's

[00:27:24] demand

[00:27:24] for

[00:27:25] irradiated

[00:27:25] silicon

[00:27:26] that's

[00:27:27] used

[00:27:27] in

[00:27:27] electronics

[00:27:27] and

[00:27:28] green

[00:27:28] technologies.

[00:27:30] Now

[00:27:31] here's

[00:27:31] something

[00:27:31] that may

[00:27:32] not

[00:27:32] come

[00:27:32] as

[00:27:32] a

[00:27:32] surprise.

[00:27:33] A

[00:27:34] new

[00:27:34] study

[00:27:34] has

[00:27:35] found

[00:27:35] that

[00:27:35] guys

[00:27:36] tend

[00:27:36] to

[00:27:36] head

[00:27:36] to

[00:27:37] the

[00:27:37] bar

[00:27:37] faster

[00:27:37] when

[00:27:38] women

[00:27:38] are

[00:27:38] scarce.

[00:27:39] The

[00:27:39] findings

[00:27:40] reported

[00:27:40] in

[00:27:41] the

[00:27:41] journal

[00:27:41] Biological

[00:27:42] Letters

[00:27:42] shows

[00:27:43] that

[00:27:43] if

[00:27:43] you're

[00:27:43] out

[00:27:43] at

[00:27:43] the

[00:27:44] pub

[00:27:44] with

[00:27:44] a

[00:27:44] group

[00:27:44] of

[00:27:44] mates

[00:27:45] which

[00:27:45] include

[00:27:45] both

[00:27:46] males

[00:27:46] and

[00:27:46] females

[00:27:47] then

[00:27:47] the

[00:27:47] men

[00:27:48] will

[00:27:48] be

[00:27:48] quicker

[00:27:48] to

[00:27:48] head

[00:27:48] to

[00:27:49] the

[00:27:49] bar

[00:27:49] and

[00:27:49] buy

[00:27:49] drinks

[00:27:50] if

[00:27:50] they

[00:27:50] outnumber

[00:27:51] the

[00:27:51] women

[00:27:51] in

[00:27:51] your

[00:27:52] group.

[00:27:52] The

[00:27:53] authors

[00:27:53] monitored

[00:27:54] 163

[00:27:54] mixed

[00:27:55] sex

[00:27:55] groups

[00:27:55] out

[00:27:56] for

[00:27:56] drinks

[00:27:56] at

[00:27:56] three

[00:27:57] taverns

[00:27:57] in

[00:27:57] the

[00:27:57] Boston

[00:27:58] area

[00:27:58] over

[00:27:58] a

[00:27:59] period

[00:27:59] of

[00:27:59] seven

[00:27:59] nights.

[00:28:00] Good

[00:28:01] work

[00:28:01] if

[00:28:01] you

[00:28:01] can

[00:28:01] get

[00:28:02] it.

[00:28:02] They

[00:28:02] found

[00:28:03] that

[00:28:03] when

[00:28:03] males

[00:28:03] outnumbered

[00:28:04] females

[00:28:04] in the

[00:28:05] group

[00:28:05] the

[00:28:05] alpha

[00:28:05] male

[00:28:06] would

[00:28:06] take

[00:28:06] less

[00:28:06] time

[00:28:07] to

[00:28:07] stride

[00:28:07] up

[00:28:07] to

[00:28:08] the

[00:28:08] bar

[00:28:08] make

[00:28:08] physical

[00:28:09] contact

[00:28:09] with

[00:28:10] it

[00:28:25] fascinating

[00:28:25] case

[00:28:26] of

[00:28:26] people

[00:28:26] who

[00:28:26] suffer

[00:28:27] from

[00:28:27] a

[00:28:27] phantasia

[00:28:28] a

[00:28:28] characteristic

[00:28:29] some

[00:28:29] people

[00:28:29] have

[00:28:30] related

[00:28:30] to

[00:28:30] how

[00:28:31] their

[00:28:31] mind

[00:28:31] and

[00:28:31] imagination

[00:28:32] work.

[00:28:33] Having

[00:28:33] a

[00:28:33] phantasia

[00:28:34] means

[00:28:35] you

[00:28:35] either

[00:28:35] don't

[00:28:35] have

[00:28:36] or

[00:28:36] have

[00:28:36] a

[00:28:36] reduced

[00:28:36] level

[00:28:37] of

[00:28:37] visual

[00:28:37] imagination

[00:28:38] keeping

[00:28:39] you

[00:28:39] from

[00:28:39] picturing

[00:28:39] things

[00:28:40] in

[00:28:40] your

[00:28:40] mind.

[00:28:41] The

[00:28:41] research

[00:28:42] by

[00:28:42] the

[00:28:42] University

[00:28:43] of

[00:28:43] Sussex

[00:28:43] found

[00:28:44] that

[00:28:44] 0.8%

[00:28:45] of the

[00:28:45] population

[00:28:46] is

[00:28:46] unable

[00:28:47] to

[00:28:47] form

[00:28:48] visual

[00:28:48] mental

[00:28:48] images

[00:28:49] and

[00:28:50] 3.9%

[00:28:50] of the

[00:28:51] population

[00:28:51] either

[00:28:52] unable

[00:28:52] to

[00:28:52] form

[00:28:52] mental

[00:28:53] images

[00:28:53] or

[00:28:53] had

[00:28:54] only

[00:28:54] a

[00:28:54] very

[00:28:54] dim

[00:28:55] or

[00:28:55] vague

[00:28:55] mental

[00:28:55] imagery.

[00:28:56] Tim

[00:28:57] Mendham

[00:28:57] from

[00:28:57] Australian

[00:28:58] Skeptic

[00:28:58] says

[00:28:58] it's

[00:28:59] like

[00:28:59] asking

[00:28:59] someone

[00:29:00] not

[00:29:00] to

[00:29:00] think

[00:29:00] of

[00:29:01] a

[00:29:01] pink

[00:29:01] elephant.

[00:29:02] Well

[00:29:02] of

[00:29:21] people

[00:29:22] call

[00:29:23] up

[00:29:23] a

[00:29:23] visual

[00:29:23] memory

[00:29:24] and

[00:29:24] they

[00:29:25] respond

[00:29:25] in

[00:29:26] kind.

[00:29:26] It's

[00:29:26] very

[00:29:26] hard

[00:29:27] to

[00:29:27] stop

[00:29:27] doing

[00:29:27] that

[00:29:28] except

[00:29:28] for

[00:29:28] people

[00:29:28] apparently

[00:29:29] who

[00:29:29] have

[00:29:29] a

[00:29:30] thing

[00:29:30] called

[00:29:30] a

[00:29:30] fantasia

[00:29:31] who

[00:29:31] apparently

[00:29:32] cannot

[00:29:32] visualise

[00:29:33] things.

[00:29:33] They

[00:29:33] cannot

[00:29:34] call

[00:29:34] up

[00:29:34] a

[00:29:35] visual

[00:29:35] image

[00:29:36] or

[00:29:36] memory

[00:29:37] or

[00:29:37] whatever

[00:29:37] of

[00:29:38] something

[00:29:38] just

[00:29:38] because

[00:29:39] it's

[00:29:39] not

[00:29:39] in

[00:29:39] their

[00:29:40] brain

[00:29:40] to

[00:29:40] do

[00:29:40] so

[00:29:40] which

[00:29:41] is

[00:29:41] interesting

[00:29:41] this

[00:29:41] is

[00:29:41] basically

[00:29:42] the

[00:29:42] whole

[00:29:42] spectrum

[00:29:43] idea

[00:29:43] that

[00:29:44] everything

[00:29:44] that

[00:29:45] affects

[00:29:45] humans

[00:29:45] you

[00:29:46] run

[00:29:46] from

[00:29:46] people

[00:29:46] with

[00:29:47] very

[00:29:47] strong

[00:29:47] visual

[00:29:47] imagery

[00:29:48] skills

[00:29:49] or

[00:29:49] proclivities

[00:29:50] to someone

[00:29:50] who has

[00:29:50] no

[00:29:51] visual

[00:29:51] proclivity

[00:29:52] at all

[00:29:52] certainly

[00:29:52] not just

[00:29:53] looking at

[00:29:53] something

[00:29:54] but actually

[00:29:54] remembering

[00:29:54] something

[00:29:55] or calling

[00:29:55] it up

[00:29:56] in their

[00:29:56] head

[00:29:57] so

[00:29:57] a

[00:29:57] fantasia

[00:29:58] is

[00:29:58] this

[00:29:58] condition

[00:29:59] it's

[00:29:59] like

[00:30:00] if

[00:30:00] you're

[00:30:00] reading

[00:30:00] a

[00:30:00] book

[00:30:01] and

[00:30:01] you

[00:30:01] have

[00:30:01] normal

[00:30:02] visual

[00:30:02] imagery

[00:30:03] skills

[00:30:04] you can

[00:30:04] sort of

[00:30:04] see a

[00:30:05] character

[00:30:05] doing

[00:30:05] something

[00:30:05] you

[00:30:06] have

[00:30:06] a

[00:30:06] picture

[00:30:06] of

[00:30:06] someone

[00:30:06] if

[00:30:07] you

[00:30:07] have

[00:30:07] a

[00:30:07] fantasia

[00:30:08] you

[00:30:08] can't

[00:30:08] visualise

[00:30:09] something

[00:30:09] so basically

[00:30:10] it's

[00:30:10] very

[00:30:11] difficult

[00:30:11] to

[00:30:11] survive

[00:30:12] well

[00:30:13] they

[00:30:13] survive

[00:30:14] quite

[00:30:14] well

[00:30:15] just as

[00:30:15] good

[00:30:15] as

[00:30:15] anybody

[00:30:16] else

[00:30:16] half

[00:30:16] the time

[00:30:17] they

[00:30:17] would

[00:30:17] not

[00:30:17] know

[00:30:18] they

[00:30:18] can't

[00:30:18] do

[00:30:18] this

[00:30:19] because

[00:30:19] they

[00:30:19] don't

[00:30:19] know

[00:30:20] what

[00:30:20] they

[00:30:20] can't

[00:30:20] do

[00:30:20] until

[00:30:21] they

[00:30:21] realize

[00:30:21] that other

[00:30:22] people are

[00:30:22] calling up

[00:30:23] an image

[00:30:23] in their

[00:30:23] head

[00:30:23] it's

[00:30:24] not

[00:30:24] looking at

[00:30:24] something

[00:30:24] you can

[00:30:25] still

[00:30:25] cross

[00:30:25] the

[00:30:25] road

[00:30:25] but

[00:30:26] it's

[00:30:26] actually

[00:30:26] calling

[00:30:26] up

[00:30:26] an image

[00:30:27] in your

[00:30:27] head

[00:30:27] sometimes

[00:30:28] these

[00:30:28] people

[00:30:28] have

[00:30:29] better

[00:30:29] audio

[00:30:29] memory

[00:30:30] they

[00:30:30] can

[00:30:30] call

[00:30:31] up

[00:30:31] a

[00:30:31] sound

[00:30:31] someone

[00:30:32] says

[00:30:32] a trumpet

[00:30:32] so they're

[00:30:32] hearing

[00:30:33] whereas someone

[00:30:34] with a visual

[00:30:34] theme might be

[00:30:35] seeing a trumpet

[00:30:35] in their head

[00:30:36] so it's a bit of

[00:30:37] swings and roundabouts

[00:30:38] and they're also

[00:30:39] suggesting that some

[00:30:39] people perhaps

[00:30:40] and this is very much

[00:30:41] perhaps

[00:30:42] people with

[00:30:43] aphantasia

[00:30:43] or aphantasics

[00:30:45] as they call them

[00:30:45] might be resistant to

[00:30:46] trauma

[00:30:47] for reliving events

[00:30:48] they can't see it

[00:30:49] in their head

[00:30:49] it's like do

[00:30:50] people

[00:30:50] who have

[00:30:52] aphantasia

[00:30:53] daydream

[00:30:53] do they see

[00:30:54] things in their

[00:30:54] head etc

[00:30:55] a memory

[00:30:56] call it up

[00:30:56] etc

[00:30:57] so maybe

[00:30:58] it's a painful

[00:30:58] memory

[00:30:58] but they can't

[00:30:59] relive it

[00:31:00] because they

[00:31:00] can't see it

[00:31:01] in their head

[00:31:01] and they might

[00:31:02] have a better

[00:31:02] time

[00:31:03] but it's an

[00:31:03] interesting

[00:31:03] situation

[00:31:04] some people

[00:31:05] see colours

[00:31:05] they hear a word

[00:31:06] or they hear

[00:31:07] a sound

[00:31:08] and they can

[00:31:09] see colours

[00:31:09] this is something

[00:31:10] else in their

[00:31:10] head

[00:31:11] that people

[00:31:11] can't see

[00:31:12] imagery

[00:31:12] we've got a

[00:31:13] current feature

[00:31:13] in our magazine

[00:31:14] on psychology

[00:31:15] and all the

[00:31:15] aberrations

[00:31:16] that people

[00:31:16] have

[00:31:17] and aberration

[00:31:18] might be the

[00:31:18] wrong word

[00:31:18] it's just a

[00:31:19] variation across

[00:31:20] the spectrum

[00:31:20] in so many

[00:31:21] different areas

[00:31:22] and this is

[00:31:23] just one of

[00:31:23] them

[00:31:23] that's Tim

[00:31:24] Mendham from

[00:31:25] Australian Skeptics

[00:31:26] and that's the

[00:31:42] show for now

[00:31:43] Space Time

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