Cosmic Webs and Dark Energy: A New Model for the Universe

This is Spacetime Series twenty eight, episode one hundred and fourteen, for broadcast on the twenty second of September twenty twenty five. Coming up on Space Time, a new model to explain the cosmos, one of those ultimate questions of science and humanity? Are we alone in the universe? And a partial solar eclipse darkens the skies of the South Pacific. All that and more coming up on space Time. Welcome to space Time with Stuart Gary. Scientists have developed a new mathematical model of the universe, one which attempts to explain its evolution over the past thirteen point eight billion years in a more simplistic manner. The new research reported in the journal Physical Review Letters. It's based on data from DESI, the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument, which is measurements of the universe up to eleven billion years. The large scale structure of the universe is sort of like a giant cosmic web, comprising strands and filaments of galaxies, galaxy clusters, and superclusters wrapped around the outskirts of vast near empty voids. The author's work tries for the first time to explain collapsing regions of matter and expanding voids. The stati's lead author, Leonardo Jiani from the University of Queensland, says it's dark energy which remains the key factor in cosmic evolution. Dark energy is a measurement showing not just that the universe is expanding, but that its rate of expansion is actually accelerating. It originally began as a sort of fudge factor called the cosmological constant, invented by Albert Einstein, whose field theories showed that the universe was in fact expanding. The problem is Einstein lived at a time when it was generally accepted that the universe was actually in a steady state which always remained generally the same on cosmic scales. So to try and explain the expansion his equations were showing, Einstein invented his cosmological constant in order to artificially adjust the figures and return the universe into a steady state as it should be. However, years later, observations by Edwin Hubble proved that the universe really was expanding. That forced Einstein to remove his cosmological constant, which he later described as his biggest mistake. Then, in the nineteen nineties, observations of supernovae showed that the universe wasn't just expanding, but that rate of expansion was actually increasing, and so Einstein's cosmological constant was back, but this time under the new term of dark energy. Dark because no one really knew exactly what it was, some sort of anti gravity or vacuum energies the best they could come up with. Then along came David Wheelchair from the University of Canterbury, who challenged the status quo in the early two thousand. They used improved analysis of supernova light to show that the universe is expanding in a more varied, a more lumpier way. Woolche's work supports a timescape model of cosmic expansion, one which doesn't have the need for dark energy, because the differences in stretching light aren't the result of an accelerating universe, but instead a consequence of how science calibrates time and distance. Timescape takes into account the fact that time itself slows down around mass, and so an ideal clock in the empty space of a vast void would take faster than what the same clock would inside a galaxy. In fact, the model suggests that a clock in the Milky Way would be about thirty five percent slower than the same clock at an average position in a large cosmic void, and that means billions more years would have passed inside a void compared to inside galaxy, and this would in turn allow more expansion of space, making it seem like the expansion is getting faster when such vast, empty voids grow to dominate the universe. Wulci said he's finding show that science doesn't need dark energy to explain why the universe appears to be expanding at an ever accelerating rate. He says dark energy is simply a misidentification of variations in the kinetic energy of expansion, which is not uniform in the universe as lumpy as the one we actually live in, and that's where the new work of Jihanni comes in. His research shows dark energy is real, but maybe not as strong as some have suggested. Johnny's new model can change the way physicists and cosmologists look at the universe. He points out that the standard model mapping the universe from the Big Bang right through to now as matter particles of the same size not interacting with each other, but in reality, astronomers can see there are stars in black holes, galaxy clusters, and empty regions constantly interacting through it. Forces such as gravity not accounted for but the standard model. Johnny says, for the past third years, scientists have tried to explain what's happening as this complex universe expands, and there been plenty of exotic attempt set solutions. You see, astronomers know that voids and collapsing regions exist, but according to Janni, they didn't really know how to compute their impact on the measurements, and he says his model gives them a recipe to compute that figure without the need for any new physics. This new framework uses simple mathematical terms to describe how the emergence of complex structures in the universe affects cosmological measurements. Janni and colleagues set out to identify the minimum size avoid needs to be in order to impact the measurements, as well as the minimum size of galaxy. Customers have independent data sets, including the DESI. Data were plotted against an x and y axis chart showing the minimum sizes of the collapsing and expanding regions of space which can impact cosmological measurements. Now, the standard model of the universe should see all of these data set contours overlap, but at one end of the graph, where the sizes of the expanding and contracting regions would be too large for them to exist, But instead they overlap in a different region, and that indicates that the large voids of space may well be responsible for the anomalous behavior observed in the data. Yanni says the new model also helps address two of the biggest problems in modern cosmology, Hubble tension and the evidence for dynamical dark energy. Hubble tension is a discrepancy between two methods currently used to calculate the universe's rate of expansion, known as the Hubble constant. Well Dynamical dark energy is a theory that says energy is not constant, but changing or weakening over time. The Hubble constant is an expansion rate of roughly seventy kilometas per second per mega parsek, with a level of uncertainty of around five kilometis per second per mega parsek, a mega parsek being three point twenty six million light years. But you see that figure depends on how you're measuring the brightness of type one ac supernovae still are explosions marking the deaths of specific types of stars, which are all roughly the same mass when they die, and so explode with roughly the same level of luminosity. These can therefore be used as standard candles to determine distance through the inverse square lore. It's like looking at a row of street lights down a road and being able to tell how far away each light is by how bright it appears to be. The alternative method involves observing the cosmic microwave background radiation, the left overheat generated three hundred and eighty thousand years after the Big Bang, when the universe's primordial quark gluon plasma cooled enough for the first atoms to form, and you can observe this cosmic microwave background radiation today, three point eight billion years later as the white noise static you get between stations on old analog radio and TV sets. Of course, today that primordial superintense heat has now cooled to just two point seven degrees above absolute zero, and this is where hubble tension arises, because these two different measurement methods have viewed its slightly different values, creating a crisis in cosmology, Jenny says, if you try to assume that dark energy is weakening, and then you try to infer how fast the universe is expanding from that data, you get even lower measurements for the rate of expansion of the universe, solutions to one problem creating another. In his model, any weakening of energy is just a detailed accounting of what the universe looks like today. It behaves as if it were weakening, but may not be weakening at all, Jenny says, Essentially, when asked if the complexity of the universe were showing up in the desert data, the results shows that it was, and his study can explain those observations. It's a new model, but what I think it's very relevant is that it doesn't really require much new physics, so it's nothing revolutionary in terms of our understanding of nature the universe. Say, the main point is that our previous model, our previous understand cosmology and evolution of the universe as well, was based on the fact that the universe looks the same everywhere, and it's basically describing all the matter in the universe as if they were thus practicles that do not interact between each other and this description on sufficiently or let's a very large scale to the side of the universe wise is working very well. However, the precision of our measurements and experiments become so large, or become so good that we actually start to see some hint that this model could not be valid anymore. And what I did, essentially is trying to give up description to take into account the fact that the universe is not made by you know, identical marbles everywhere, but from you know, structures that can vary between large filaments and clusters of galaxies, and that masters two very large voids that expand faster than the rest. So you in a few words, my mathematical model is trying to quantify how many of these structures that are out there and giving to each of them some energy so that I can estimate how much their presence is outed in the evolution of the universe. Understanding they true structure the universe and our place in it is really important for how we observe the universe and how we measure it. Yeah, percasely, also because you know, all these structures were not existing back when the universe was very young, so they actually evolved with time, just like us, and we happen to appear in one for more of these complex web of structures. When I say one or more, I mean that it's quite hard to distinguish if we live in underdense environment or over dense environment. Given our measurements, we of course have things. But in order to understand our cosmic environment, our local, our place in the universe. If I can be the dramatic, we need a lot of data and very sophisticated noise. And the data becoming available only now our future. Will the universe span forever into a cosmic deep phraeze, Will that expansion slow down and become a steady state, or will gravity eventually take over from dark energy and we see the universe begin to collapse again into another big crunch, which could result in another Big Bang, then another big crunch. I mean this is determining the ultimate fate of the universe. Yeah, and that all the options that you gave so far are basically all available given our current understanding, we of course have a hint about what the nature of that energy is. And according to these what I can tell you is that seems like the universe will expand forever even if that energy is weakening or this is at least the latest evidence from some data called but an echocoustical solution, it seems. Like it sure waves in the early universe. Yes, exactly. Yeah, Like if you look at the distribution of galaxies in the universe, this is not random. It's sechally describing a very complex and nice pattum in which galaxies tend to for structures, tend to agglomerate in certain spots and to elute in others, reflecting somehow the initial conditions of the universe. So if to make a metaphor, imagine you ared at a pond, then you throw a bunch of frogs in the pond in the water, you will see sound water waves in the metaphor, and where the crest of the waves merge together, that's where you would expect another excess, another flow of water. It's the same with galaxies. We start with these initial conditions, which is like you know, a painting or an initial setting of where the matter is distributed more or less the same agreew but with small situations, and then this wave propagates, and when they propagate, they tend to agglumerate. Galaxies in their intersection points, so again it's not a random pattern. From the structure of the pattern, by trying to measure it, we can understand more about what the energy content of the universe, So how much that can it be? Is around? Much matter is around? It's very cool, and you know this dise cosmogical probe is but the only acoustic oscillation is has been known for years now. But for the very first time, we have really enough observation of galaxies. I'm talking about a millions of galaxies that we can use to put on a very significant sample and statistic. So this is very exciting and it's why it's amazing to be on the job right now. For me, Does our position within the cosmic web play an important role? In other words, if the local galactic group that's the Milky Way Andromata Triangular and all the satellite galaxies around us, if this local galactic group we're in is in one of these filaments, we would have a different understanding of the universe compared to what we would see or what we would experience if we're in the middle of one of these vast voids. Does that play a role in our understanding of dark matter and dark energy. It surely does. So if I can be very simplistic, let's imagine that that work environment, our cosmic neighborhood, let's see, is like a work gloss. This is outing slightly our perception of what's outside the glass. Of course, lights travel propagate within, and so it's slightly affected reflected and our cosmological inference. So what we learn about the universe needs to keep account of this water glass around us, which is unavoidable. Now, if you know the properties of the glass, you can kind of keep that into account and try to correct your measurements so that you're obtaining a closer description of the universal side. However, understand the glass itself is a very interesting field of research. So let's say that with the water glass is very thick, like we live in an overdanced region of the universe. Then light will be struggling reaching gas, and this will make us experience a universe that seems to expand slightly faster outside. And the opposite is true in the case of underdanced class. So if we live in avoid now, the truth is that is, if we live been avoid, it's quite unlikely that we are saved because by definition, voids should have less galaxies, so it would be a statistical fluctuations on an unlikely scenario. And also from what we know by reconstructing the velocity field of galaxies in the local universe, we kind of believe that we are part of our supercluster. The supercluster can be identified with an object called Lanyakia, which is this massive supercluster of containing hundreds of thousands of galaxies, or even a larger supercluster called Shaftli the Safti concentration. So let's say that these hints seems indicate that we actually belong to our overdense region of the universe, if that makes sense. See that's interesting because just last week we had a paper come out suggesting that the density in our region of the universe is actually lower than the average. So we're getting these conflicting figures. Depends on the observations you're making, I guess. Exactly depends really are on because logical probe using and the fact that there is seemingly not a simple answer to this question kind of reflects why it's so important that we keep trustesting our models and our analysis. I should say that historically this local underdance region has been advocated and exploited in the past because it was proposed early in the two thousand as an alternative to the existance of that Kennedy that chemopy is a beautiful resource that we have to explain a lot of problems or a lot of seemingly inconsistent observations that become not inconsistent when you introduce their. Charity is Will Chair from the University of Canterbury. Yeah, for example, the Timescape model from David Wature. But I'm talking even earlier than that, like back really in the early two thousand, before the Timescape model was our people had this model called Hpbull bubble in which they were explaining or we were trying to explain the apparent accelerated expansion of the universe with us living in a local void so like a bubble in the otherwise on much units and is isotropic universe. And of course these type of models, including the one you mentioned from the which became very popular because they provide a very physical explanation to something that is a bit uncomfortable. That kind of is a bit uncomfortable from a theoretical point of view because it challenges kind of the physics that we experience so every day. So this Underdanse model became very popular, and in my short life as an academic roughly ten years, I saw them coming up over and over again several times. To my understanding, it's all about the scales you are trying to consider. If you consider, if you restrict yourself only to certain scales, you might find evidence of a void, But if you shorten your window or enlarge it, you can find presence of classes. Because it's a very complicated structure, and the name of the game is usually distancing, but actually getting distances right in the universe is very hard because unfortunately we cannot feel the inter as you know of in the galactic side, even if we try so, we have to struggle with understanding these distances in a good way. My personal take is that I would not confidently say neither of the two ind that we live inside avoid or needed that we live inside the film. But from a gambling perspective, it's more likely that we live in a filament if you ask. Also, I ever work on like AKM, this big large supercluster of galaxies, and what I found is actually that it is compatible, like our data are compatible with the local in falling region. If you interpret these velocities of galaxy as due to the fact that there is a center of gravity towards which they're falling. So with energy existing but awakening that I guess all birds well for a big phrase ultimate fight for the universe, but not a big rip. Yes, you are clearly talking about singularities, in cosmological singularities, So big freeze would be something like the universe. It's expanding, but instead of accelerating exponentially, since that energies weakening, the break of expansion is not fascillating a start, and so everything will be put faster apart from everything else and we end up you know, cold and kind of boarding universe, which at least is a perspective. It's very relaxing to me compared to a bigree where I look in collact exponentially and even the distance between atom. Is exponentially ripped apart, very uncareful. Yeah, this is a bit more uncomfortable to me. Or at least away. You know, I'm confident that it would be not my personal problem. It's more of a philosophical approach if you want. But what is really important for me to stress out is that all these data speaking about weakening of the energies or evidence against the standard model are basically a strong evidence that science works very well. That's doctor Leonards Jenny from the Universe of Queensland, and this is space time still to come, we ask one of those ultimate questions of science and humanity? Are we alone in the universe? And today Planet Earth experienced a partial solar eclipse, a celestial spectacle visible across New Zealand, the South Pacific, a sliver of the Australian Pacific coast and across much of Antarctica. All that and more still to come on space time. Well after that deep dive in cosmology we used to open the show, now might be a good time to ask one of those ultimate questions of science and humanity? Are we alone in the universe? And that's where a new study comes in. Reminds me a bit of that line from H. G. Wells War of the World's The chances of anything coming from Mars are a million to one, and the new study warns that the chances of intelligent alien civilizations existing in our galaxy aren't really much better. A report presented at the European Planetary Science Congress in Helsinki provides new speculation on the likelihood of another earthlike society existing in our small corner of the universe. The studies authors Manuel Chef and Helmet Lemma Earth from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, say the nearest technological civilization in the Milky Way, according to their calculations, would probably be at least thirty three thousand light years away, and that such a society would need to have survived for at least two hundred and eighty thousand years potentially millions of years, in order to coexist with us. At the same time, they argue that just like Planet Earth, their home planet would need to have an active plate tectonic system in order to regulate carbon dioxide and maintain a long term biosphere, without which its atmosphere could become either depleted or toxic. Earth's atmosphere comprises seventy eight percent nitrogen, twenty one percent oxygen, and trace amounts of other gases, including cab dioxide levels which currently sit at zero point zero four two percent, although that number is increasing every day. Sheriff and Lamour estimate that Earth will lose sufficient atmospheric cabda oxide for photosynthesis within the next two hundred million to a billion years, regardless of any greenhouse effect. They say their modeling suggests that planets with ten percent carbon dioxide could support biasphes for approximately four point two billion years. Well one percent atmospheric cab dioxide would allow up to three point one billion years of habitability. Even so, such a world would, just like the Earth, still need at least eighteen percent oxygen in order to support complex animal life as we know it, and that would be essential for any advanced civilization to use fire, not just for warmth and cooking, but also for metal working in industry, a prerequisite for technology. Now, it took four point six billion years of planetary evolution for humans to reach that level of technic logical advancement. You ought to say, any civilization on a high commdark side planet would also need to endure at least two hundred and eighty thousand years in order to overlap with humanity now. In order to live and say a Star Trek style universe, a galaxy with malible civilizations existing simultaneously, it would, according to the authors, require a societal lifespan exceeding ten million years compared to Homo sapiens mere three hundred to three hundred and fifty thousand years based on the fossil record. Shrefin Lammas say that if extraterrestrial intelligence does exist out there, it's likely to be far older than us me humans. They also speculate that the closest advanced civilization would be on the fast side of our galaxy, which I guess will be in star Trek terms the delta or gamma quadrants. So you can forget worrying about the Klingon, Zindi or Cardassians and be far more concerned about the Borg Kason and Foundest dominion. This is space time still to come. A partial solar eclipse darkens the Sun Guys, and later in the Science report a bit of good news with the ozone hole over Antarctica being a bit smaller now than what it was in recent years. All that and more still to come on space time. Lad at Earth experienced a partial solar eclipse today. The celestial spectacle was visible across New Zealand, the South Pacific, a sliver of the Australian Pacific coast, and across much of Antarctica. Partial solar eclipses happened when the new Moon moves between the Sun and the Earth, obscuring a good portion of our local star. You see, Usually, the Moon's orbit around the Earth passes a little above or a little below the apparent track of the Sun across the sky. And because the orbits of both the Moon and the Earth are elliptical rather than perfectly circular, their distance from each other and the Sun also varies. But roughly once every eighteen months or so, the celestial mechanics time out just so right that everything's in alignment. The result is a solar eclipse, or in this case, a partial solar eclipse. The southernmost parts of New Zealand South Island, including Christchurch, Dunedin and Invicago, were the best places to see the eclipse, which took place as the sun was rising in the morning. The people there saw up to around seventy percent of the Sun's face eclipsed by the moon in the early dawn, forming a crescent as it rose. The moon then slowly moved across the Sun, blocking out more and more of its light over the next hour. As for Australia, only observers on the very tip of the East coast saw the Sun be partially eclipsed as it rose above the horizon this morning. The celestial event began at three point thirty in the morning Australian Eastern Standard time, with the partial reaching its maximum between five forty one and five forty three in the morning before ending at seven point fifty four. Today's event came just two weeks after a total lunar eclipse, which saw parts of Australia, Europe, Africa, and Asia experience earth shadow obscuring the full Moon, turning it blood red. That entire spectacle evolved over five hours, starting with the first dusky bite of the Moon, and totality lasting a total one hour and twenty two minutes. The Sun will put on an even better display next year, when its shadow crosses both polar regions of Earth. A ring of fire annual eclipse will cut across Antarctica in February. That's when the Moon's just a little bit too far away from the Earth for a total solar eclipse. But then a total solar eclipse will occur over the Arctic in August, providing a spectacular show not just for anyone at the North Pole, but also for people in Greenland, Iceland and Spain. The next total solar eclipse in Australia will be on July the twenty second, twenty twenty eight, with a path of totality crossing the Western Australian Kimberley Coast and then passing through the Northern Territory, southwestern Queensland and New South Wales before reaching the South Pacifica coast at Sydney at two o'clock in the afternoon. This is space time, and time now to take a brief look at some of the other stories making US and science this week with a science report. A new study warns that boys who are exposed to passive smoking as a child could go on to have kids of their own with impaired lung function. The findings, reported in the General Thorax, found that a dad's childhood passive smoking could put his kids at risk, and that risk is further heightened those kids are childhood passive smokers themselves. The authors say that the study highlights the intergenerational harms of smoking. They urge fathers to intercept this harmful legacy by avoiding lighting up anywhere near their children. Bit of good news now, Earth's protective ozone layer is healing and the ozone hole in twenty twenty four was smaller than it has been in recent years. The findings in a new study by the World Meteorological Organization indicate that the low level of ozone depletion last year was in part due to naturally occurring yide fluctuations. However, the report also found that the long term positive trend reflected the success of international action, with only China going against the trend, showing continued high levels of chlorofluorocarbon emissions compared to previous years. Total stratospheric ozone cover was higher over much of the globe, and the depth of the Adarctic ozone hole in twenty twenty four, which appears over Antarctica every southern hemisphere spring, was below the nineteen ninety to twenty twenty average. Chlorofluorocarbons are chemicals that destroy the Earth's protective stratospheric ozone layer. They do this by releasing chlorine atoms when exposed to ultraviolet light, creating an ozone hole and allowing harmful UVB radiation to reach the planet's surface. Or once used in refrigerants and aerosopropellants, the production of most CFC's has now been phased out under the Montreal Protocols. Israel has started using the first fully operational directed energy weapon, the Ion Beam. The new anti missile aser defense shield will eventually replace existing interceptor missiles like Arrow and Iron Dome, as well as the Patriot Atti missile missile. The idef's announcement follows the deployment back in June of a scaled down version of the Ion Beam platform, which is so far successfully shot down some forty drones fired at Israel by Hesbala terrorists financed by the Islamic Republic of Iran. The new, more powerful Ion Beam M batteries shoot out not only drones but also missiles, rockets and mortars, and at longer ranges, potentially even shortly after they're launched. Current IDEF plants call for three variants of the energy weapon. The light ten kilowa laser beam, which is already in operation and used by ground forces short wrench targets. The new version is the Ion M variant, which fires a two hundred and fifty millimeter fifty killer what beam which can be mounted on trucks and fired while mobile. And there's also a full size directed energy weapon version which can fire a four hundred and fifty millimeter one hundred killer what laser beam. Well, it seems flat earthers have found a new way to try and con weak minded people into believing their claims. Their latest spiel involves offering money to anyone who can prove the Earth is round, but they're not allowed to use science, mathematics, or even photos from space. These unfair conditions make it virtually impossible to prove the Earth is round, and so it allows the pseudo scientific community the falsely clam of victory. However, as Tim Mendem from Austrange Skeptics explains, one man tried and the matter eventually wound up in court with contract law rather than science being the eventual winner. This is a fellow a flat Earth proponent name then Garcia, who put out a challenge five thousand dollars for anyone who could provide real world proof that the Earth is a sphere. Now, his criteria for this You couldn't use scientific instruments, you couldn't use satellite imagery, you couldn't use math based geodetic measurements or traditional astronomical observations. So you think, what else do we have, and he was offering this five thousand dollars, so someone took it up. The contract said that you have to use the Ptolemaic measurement, which is the curvature of the Earth, which is eight inches per mile square, which is actually not correct. Egypt. I know he was in Egypt, but this actual figure, it's not exactly accurate apparently. So what's happening is that this guy has a challenge out here for someone to prove this measurement system which is not exactly accurate, without using any other sort of scientific equipment. Now someone did it. They claim they did it, that he didn't pay up. So the person who's supposed that you know, that approved the Earth was round, took the flat earth. The court or the court knocked it out. No, no, you can't get your five thousand bucks. And a lot of people saying, you know who are science based, saying, hey, O a second, this guy is saying the Earth is flat, and in the court of law you're saying it is. The thing is that what the judge wasn't saying the Earth is flat. He also wasn't saying it is around. What he was saying is that contract. It's the legal contract, and you didn't comply with the ridiculous elements of this legal contract. So it's in the. Templications for you guys that skeptics, because you have a very substantial reward for anyone who can prove science. Yeah. Yeah, we've been one hundred thousand dollars under scientific conditions that there are greed conditions. The skeptics don't set the rules. It's that the conditions are agreed by both sides. Right. It's not like I'm going to set up this thing and you have to do it, right. This is is that they let's find out a way to test this particular claim the flat earth is a bit different because it's not their specific claim of stunning skill that they have. You're going to have both science have to agree with the fair test beforehand. Otherwise the test doesn't go ahead for our one hundred thousand dollars talents. And we've had people apply for it, and we've tested people and so sign no one's been able to prove that they can do the things they say they can do. But this particular thing I'm proving, the flat Earth's very similar thing to what happened in the eighteen hundreds with fellow name Alfred Russell Wallace, who was one of the developers of the theory of evolution, who was also scientist in many different areas. And someone else stood up this thing proved the Earth is the sphere. And he went and did an experiment on a canal, posts and all sorts of things, and proved quite definitively that the Earth was curved. And then the guy said, no, One'm not going to pay you. So they took in the court and went on and on and not Wallace said, not paying more money for the court than he would ever have got for the challenge amounts. So this is very well, then it is the principle. Yet but in this particular case there was a money principle, not not not the scientific principle. So people are disappointed that in a court of law the flat earth theory was not thrown out as ridiculous. And the story goes is that the law was not looking at the science, but also wasn't necessarily looking at how reasonable the conditions were. It's just that the challenge that did not comply with the unreasonable conditions, So that would then be used to say the court of law, yeah, they didn knock that flat Earth, but clearly said for the contract scientific Unfortunately. That's timidum from Australian Skeptics, and that's the show for now. Spacetime is available every Monday, Wednesday and Friday through Apple Podcasts, iTunes, Stitcher, Google podcast, pocker Casts, Spotify, Acast, Amazon Music, Bytes dot com, SoundCloud, YouTube, your favorite podcast download provider, and from space Time with Stuart Gary dot com. Space Time's also broadcast through the National Science Foundation, on Science Zone Radio and on both iHeartRadio and tune In Radio. And you can help to support our show by visiting the space Time Store for a range of promotional merchandising goodies, or by becoming a Spacetime Patron, which gives give you access to triple episode commercial free versions of the show, as well as lots of burnus audio content which doesn't go to air, access to our exclusive Facebook group, and other rewards. Just go to space Time with Stewart Gary dot com for full details. You've been listening to space Time with Stuart Gary. This has been another quality podcast production from bytes dot com