S27E103: Astronauts Swap Ships, Dinosaur-Killer Asteroid's Journey, and JUICE's Gravity Maneuver

[00:00:00] [SPEAKER_00]: This is SpaceTime, Series 27, Episode 103, for broadcast on the 26th of August 2024.

[00:00:07] [SPEAKER_00]: Coming up on SpaceTime...

[00:00:09] [SPEAKER_00]: NASA decides to return the stranded Starliner crew to Earth aboard rival SpaceX's Dragon.

[00:00:15] [SPEAKER_00]: Tracking down the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs,

[00:00:19] [SPEAKER_00]: the JUICE spacecraft completes the first ever joint lunar-Earth gravity assist flyby,

[00:00:25] [SPEAKER_00]: and three more Australian satellites sent into orbit.

[00:00:28] [SPEAKER_00]: All that and more coming up on SpaceTime.

[00:00:33] [SPEAKER_02]: Welcome to SpaceTime with Stuart Gary.

[00:00:52] [SPEAKER_00]: NASA has decided to return the stranded Starliner crew to Earth aboard rival SpaceX's Dragon capsule.

[00:00:59] [SPEAKER_00]: The move follows ongoing concerns about the reliability of the Starliner spacecraft they flew up on.

[00:01:06] [SPEAKER_00]: The decision means Butch Wiltmore and Sonny Williams planned 8-day test fly to the International Space Station

[00:01:12] [SPEAKER_00]: will now stretch out to some 8 months, the pair not returning to Earth until February next year.

[00:01:18] [SPEAKER_00]: NASA has now instructed Boeing to return the Starliner to Earth without astronauts on board

[00:01:23] [SPEAKER_00]: so they can continue gathering test data on the spacecraft during its flight home.

[00:01:29] [SPEAKER_00]: Wiltmore and Williams will now formally become part of the Expedition 7172 crew through to February 2025.

[00:01:35] [SPEAKER_00]: They'll then fly back to Earth aboard a Dragon spacecraft with two other crew members assigned to the agency's SpaceX Crew-9 mission.

[00:01:44] [SPEAKER_00]: Starliner is expected to depart the space station and make a controlled, autonomous reentry and landing

[00:01:49] [SPEAKER_00]: at the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico sometime next month.

[00:01:53] [SPEAKER_00]: The problems with Starliner are quite extensive.

[00:01:57] [SPEAKER_00]: They mostly center around ongoing helium leaks in the service module

[00:02:00] [SPEAKER_00]: and issues which cause the sudden shutdown of reaction control system thrusters.

[00:02:05] [SPEAKER_00]: They're used to maneuver the spacecraft, especially during the crucial approach and dogging to the space station.

[00:02:11] [SPEAKER_00]: The docking which was supposed to be carried out automatically instead needed to be carried out manually because of the ongoing thruster problems.

[00:02:19] [SPEAKER_00]: Since then, engineering teams have completed a significant amount of work including reviewing a collection of data,

[00:02:25] [SPEAKER_00]: conducting flight and ground testing, hosting independent reviews with agency propulsion experts

[00:02:30] [SPEAKER_00]: and developing various return contingency plans.

[00:02:33] [SPEAKER_00]: However, the ongoing uncertainty and the lack of expert agreement between Boeing and NASA

[00:02:38] [SPEAKER_00]: has forced NASA to make the decision to cascade the Boeing crew onto the SpaceX Crew-9 mission.

[00:02:44] [SPEAKER_00]: Starliner is designed to operate autonomously and previously completed two unmanned orbital test flights,

[00:02:50] [SPEAKER_00]: the first of which almost ended in disaster following a series of major computer issues.

[00:02:55] [SPEAKER_00]: These firstly put Starliner into the wrong orbit, preventing it from docking with the space station.

[00:03:01] [SPEAKER_00]: A second computer issue meant that even if they had reached the orbiting outpost,

[00:03:05] [SPEAKER_00]: they still would not have been able to dock.

[00:03:08] [SPEAKER_00]: But the biggest problem was the third computer issue.

[00:03:11] [SPEAKER_00]: That would have caused the command module to collide with the service module as it was being jettisoned prior to reentry.

[00:03:18] [SPEAKER_00]: NASA and Boeing are now developing a new end-of-mission flight plan

[00:03:21] [SPEAKER_00]: and set up Starliner systems for the unmanned return flight in coming weeks.

[00:03:26] [SPEAKER_00]: Starliner needs to return to Earth before the Dragon Crew-9 mission launches

[00:03:30] [SPEAKER_00]: in order to ensure a docking port will be available on the station.

[00:03:34] [SPEAKER_00]: Following Starliner's return to Earth, NASA will review all mission-related data

[00:03:38] [SPEAKER_00]: to determine what additional actions need to be taken in order to meet NASA's future certification requirements.

[00:03:45] [SPEAKER_00]: The agency's SpaceX Crew-9 mission, originally slated for four crew members,

[00:03:49] [SPEAKER_00]: will launch no earlier than Tuesday, September the 24th.

[00:03:53] [SPEAKER_00]: NASA and SpaceX are currently working on several items before launch,

[00:03:57] [SPEAKER_00]: including reconfiguring the seating on the Crew-9 Dragon

[00:04:00] [SPEAKER_00]: and adjusting the manifest to carry additional cargo, personal effects,

[00:04:04] [SPEAKER_00]: and Dragon-specific spacesuits for Wiltmore and Williams.

[00:04:07] [SPEAKER_00]: In addition, NASA and SpaceX will now use the new facilities at Space Launch Complex 40 at Cape Canaveral to launch Crew-9.

[00:04:14] [SPEAKER_00]: It provides increased operational flexibility around NASA's planned Europa Clipper launch.

[00:04:20] [SPEAKER_00]: The Crew-9 mission will be the ninth rotational mission for SpaceX

[00:04:24] [SPEAKER_00]: and a NASA's commercial crew program to transport astronauts to and from the International Space Station.

[00:04:31] [SPEAKER_00]: This is space time.

[00:04:33] [SPEAKER_00]: Still to come, tracking down the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs,

[00:04:37] [SPEAKER_00]: the JUS spacecraft completes the first ever joint lunar Earth gravity assist flyby

[00:04:42] [SPEAKER_00]: and three more Australian satellites sent into orbit.

[00:04:46] [SPEAKER_00]: All that and more still to come on space time.

[00:05:02] [SPEAKER_00]: A new study claims the asteroid which triggered the extinction of 75% of all life on Earth,

[00:05:09] [SPEAKER_00]: including all the non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago,

[00:05:12] [SPEAKER_00]: originated beyond the orbit of Jupiter during the early development of the solar system.

[00:05:17] [SPEAKER_00]: The findings reported in the journal Science are based on a new analysis of the KT boundary layer,

[00:05:23] [SPEAKER_00]: a global geological feature composed of ash and debris from the asteroid impact event

[00:05:28] [SPEAKER_00]: containing unusually high levels of iridium, a metal rare on Earth but common in asteroids.

[00:05:35] [SPEAKER_00]: The impact which triggered the planet's fifth mass extinction event

[00:05:38] [SPEAKER_00]: was caused by a 10 to 15 kilometer wide asteroid slamming into a shallow sea

[00:05:43] [SPEAKER_00]: off the coast of what now is the Gulf of Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula.

[00:05:47] [SPEAKER_00]: That collision released as much energy as a hundred teratons of TNT.

[00:05:54] [SPEAKER_00]: To put that another way, that's a billion times more power

[00:05:57] [SPEAKER_00]: than the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs used to end the Second World War.

[00:06:02] [SPEAKER_00]: The initial impact created the 180 kilometer wide Chicxulub crater

[00:06:06] [SPEAKER_00]: throwing molten ejector and debris high into the atmosphere

[00:06:10] [SPEAKER_00]: and triggering a massive tsunami hundreds of meters high

[00:06:13] [SPEAKER_00]: together with devastating earthquakes, volcanic eruptions

[00:06:16] [SPEAKER_00]: and even land tsunamis, all of which combined to shake the entire planet.

[00:06:22] [SPEAKER_00]: In fact shock waves from the collision circled the Earth several times.

[00:06:27] [SPEAKER_00]: Burning debris from the impact ejector eventually began raining back down onto the surface

[00:06:32] [SPEAKER_00]: causing an intense pulse of infrared radiation

[00:06:34] [SPEAKER_00]: which began cooking any life exposed to it.

[00:06:37] [SPEAKER_00]: And when combined with the molten lava flowing from all those volcanic eruptions

[00:06:42] [SPEAKER_00]: sparked global wildfires which devastated vast areas

[00:06:46] [SPEAKER_00]: burning out vegetation and killing any animal life that managed to survive the initial blast wave.

[00:06:53] [SPEAKER_00]: Making matters even worse, the asteroid impacted the planet

[00:06:56] [SPEAKER_00]: at a location rich in sulphate containing gypsum

[00:06:59] [SPEAKER_00]: which was instantly vaporized and then dispersed as an aerosol into the atmosphere

[00:07:04] [SPEAKER_00]: only to fall back down onto the surface as harley-kostik acid rain

[00:07:08] [SPEAKER_00]: burning anything it touched and causing long term effects to the environment, climate and food chain.

[00:07:14] [SPEAKER_00]: Smoke and ash from the wildfires and volcanic eruptions

[00:07:18] [SPEAKER_00]: together with dust from the ejector debris initially created a blanket like greenhouse effect

[00:07:23] [SPEAKER_00]: preventing heat from escaping the planet and causing the Earth's surface temperatures to soar.

[00:07:29] [SPEAKER_00]: Eventually those temperatures cooled as the smoke, ash, dust and ejector debris

[00:07:34] [SPEAKER_00]: locked out the sunlight for months if not years on end

[00:07:37] [SPEAKER_00]: creating an impact winter causing temperatures to plummet.

[00:07:41] [SPEAKER_00]: At around the same time as all this was happening

[00:07:43] [SPEAKER_00]: massive volcanic eruptions in what is now India

[00:07:46] [SPEAKER_00]: known as the Deccan Traps flood basalts began flowing across the subcontinent.

[00:07:51] [SPEAKER_00]: That pumped out even more toxic gas and pollution to the atmosphere

[00:07:54] [SPEAKER_00]: further contributing to the growing impact winter.

[00:07:59] [SPEAKER_00]: Now scientists have been examining the KT boundary layer

[00:08:02] [SPEAKER_00]: looking at its high concentrations of platinum group metals

[00:08:05] [SPEAKER_00]: which came from the asteroid and are extremely rare in the Earth's crust.

[00:08:09] [SPEAKER_00]: By analysing the isotopic composition of the platinum metal ruthenium

[00:08:13] [SPEAKER_00]: the authors discovered that the asteroid's composition

[00:08:16] [SPEAKER_00]: is consistent with that of carbonaceous meteorites.

[00:08:19] [SPEAKER_00]: These originally formed beyond the orbit of Jupiter

[00:08:22] [SPEAKER_00]: during the solar system's formation 4.6 billion years ago.

[00:08:26] [SPEAKER_00]: The study's lead author Mario Fisciagotti from the University of Cologne

[00:08:30] [SPEAKER_00]: says the impact of an asteroid like the one at Chicxaloops

[00:08:33] [SPEAKER_00]: a very rare and unique event in geological time.

[00:08:36] [SPEAKER_00]: The authors also looked at ruthenium isotope compositions

[00:08:40] [SPEAKER_00]: from other craters and impact structures of different ages on Earth for comparison.

[00:08:45] [SPEAKER_00]: And that data was surprising.

[00:08:47] [SPEAKER_00]: It shows that within the last 500 million years

[00:08:49] [SPEAKER_00]: almost exclusively fragments of S-type asteroids have been hitting the Earth.

[00:08:54] [SPEAKER_00]: In contrast to the impact of the KT boundary event asteroid 66 million years ago

[00:08:59] [SPEAKER_00]: these other asteroids usually tend to originate from the inner solar system

[00:09:03] [SPEAKER_00]: as do well over 80% of all asteroid impacts on Earth

[00:09:07] [SPEAKER_00]: making the Chicxaloop event rare and unique in geological time.

[00:09:12] [SPEAKER_00]: This is space-time.

[00:09:15] [SPEAKER_00]: Still to come.

[00:09:16] [SPEAKER_00]: Europe's Juic spacecraft completes the first ever joint lunar Earth gravity assist flyby

[00:09:21] [SPEAKER_00]: and three more Australian satellites sent into orbit.

[00:09:25] [SPEAKER_00]: All that and more still to come on space-time.

[00:09:44] [SPEAKER_00]: The European Space Agency's JUIC, Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer spacecraft

[00:09:48] [SPEAKER_00]: has successfully completed the first ever joint lunar Earth gravity assist flyby

[00:09:53] [SPEAKER_00]: flinging itself just as planned towards the planet Venus.

[00:09:57] [SPEAKER_00]: The Venus excursion will be another gravity assist flyby

[00:10:01] [SPEAKER_00]: all part of a celestial dance designed to accelerate JUIC

[00:10:04] [SPEAKER_00]: towards its ultimate target Jupiter and its icy Galilean moons.

[00:10:09] [SPEAKER_00]: During its lunar flyby, JUIC captured some stunning new images of the Moon

[00:10:14] [SPEAKER_00]: with its monitoring cameras.

[00:10:16] [SPEAKER_00]: The images are showing signs of real colour differences

[00:10:18] [SPEAKER_00]: in large scale features on the lunar surface.

[00:10:22] [SPEAKER_00]: All the more impressive because the monitoring cameras were designed

[00:10:24] [SPEAKER_00]: to monitor the spacecraft's various booms and antennas

[00:10:27] [SPEAKER_00]: especially during the challenging deployment period following launch.

[00:10:31] [SPEAKER_00]: They weren't designed to carry out science or image the Moon.

[00:10:35] [SPEAKER_00]: For that there's a purpose-built scientific camera called Janus.

[00:10:38] [SPEAKER_00]: It's providing high resolution imagery during the cruise phase

[00:10:42] [SPEAKER_00]: as well as the flybys of the Earth, the Moon and Venus

[00:10:45] [SPEAKER_00]: and of course of Jupiter and its icy moons

[00:10:47] [SPEAKER_00]: once the spacecraft is in the Jovian system.

[00:10:51] [SPEAKER_00]: The close gravity assist flyby approach to the Moon

[00:10:53] [SPEAKER_00]: was designed to guide you towards a similar close approach

[00:10:57] [SPEAKER_00]: with the Earth just 24 hours later.

[00:10:59] [SPEAKER_00]: And just as with the Moon, as JUIC flew just 6,840 kilometres

[00:11:04] [SPEAKER_00]: above south-east Asia in the Pacific Ocean

[00:11:06] [SPEAKER_00]: it snapped a series of images with its onboard monitoring cameras

[00:11:10] [SPEAKER_00]: and collected scientific data with 8 of its 10 instruments.

[00:11:14] [SPEAKER_00]: ESA mission managers say that gravity assist flybys

[00:11:17] [SPEAKER_00]: of the Moon and Earth were flawless.

[00:11:19] [SPEAKER_00]: The flyby of the Moon increased JUIC's speed by 0.9 km per second

[00:11:24] [SPEAKER_00]: relative to the Sun, guiding JUIC towards the Earth.

[00:11:27] [SPEAKER_00]: Then the flyby of the Earth just a day later

[00:11:30] [SPEAKER_00]: reduced JUIC's speed by 4.8 km per second

[00:11:34] [SPEAKER_00]: relative to the Sun, but also guided JUIC

[00:11:36] [SPEAKER_00]: on a new trajectory towards Venus.

[00:11:39] [SPEAKER_00]: Overall the lunar Earth flyby is deflected JUIC by an angle

[00:11:42] [SPEAKER_00]: of around 100 degrees compared to its pre-flyby path.

[00:11:46] [SPEAKER_00]: These inherently risky flyby manoeuvres

[00:11:49] [SPEAKER_00]: require ultra precise real time navigation

[00:11:52] [SPEAKER_00]: but at the same time it's saving the mission

[00:11:54] [SPEAKER_00]: around 100 to 150 kg of propellant.

[00:11:57] [SPEAKER_00]: Over the past month mission managers gave JUIC

[00:12:00] [SPEAKER_00]: a series of slight nudges in order to put it on

[00:12:03] [SPEAKER_00]: exactly the right approach trajectory.

[00:12:05] [SPEAKER_00]: And thanks to a flawless Ariane 5 launch from Kourou

[00:12:08] [SPEAKER_00]: back in April last year, JUIC already had a little extra propellant

[00:12:12] [SPEAKER_00]: left in its tanks to get closer to Jupiter's big moon Ganymede

[00:12:15] [SPEAKER_00]: than originally planned.

[00:12:17] [SPEAKER_00]: The success of the lunar Earth flyby has now safeguarded

[00:12:21] [SPEAKER_00]: this bonus science.

[00:12:23] [SPEAKER_00]: Whilst the main goal was to alter JUIC's trajectory

[00:12:25] [SPEAKER_00]: the lunar Earth flyby also provided an opportunity

[00:12:28] [SPEAKER_00]: to test out JUIC's scientific instruments in space

[00:12:31] [SPEAKER_00]: with all 10 switched on during the moon flyby

[00:12:34] [SPEAKER_00]: and 8 switched on during the Earth close encounter.

[00:12:37] [SPEAKER_00]: JUIC's next encounter will be with Venus in August 2025

[00:12:41] [SPEAKER_00]: and that Venus flyby

[00:12:43] [SPEAKER_00]: will boost JUIC back towards the Earth for yet another flyby.

[00:12:47] [SPEAKER_00]: The spacecraft will zoom past our home planet again

[00:12:50] [SPEAKER_00]: in September 2026

[00:12:52] [SPEAKER_00]: and then again in January 2029

[00:12:55] [SPEAKER_00]: in the process gaining two more gravity assist boosts

[00:12:58] [SPEAKER_00]: before finally arriving in the Jovian system in July 2031.

[00:13:03] [SPEAKER_00]: The European Space Agency led mission

[00:13:05] [SPEAKER_00]: also includes technology from NASA, JAXA

[00:13:08] [SPEAKER_00]: and the Israeli Space Agency.

[00:13:11] [SPEAKER_00]: JUIC will undertake detailed observations of the gas giant Jupiter

[00:13:14] [SPEAKER_00]: as well as its three larger subsurface ocean bearing moons

[00:13:17] [SPEAKER_00]: Ganymede, Callisto and Europa.

[00:13:19] [SPEAKER_00]: The mission will characterise these moons

[00:13:22] [SPEAKER_00]: using a powerful suite of remote sensing, geophysical

[00:13:25] [SPEAKER_00]: and in situ instruments to discover more about these bodies

[00:13:29] [SPEAKER_00]: and help determine their habitability for past

[00:13:32] [SPEAKER_00]: or maybe even present life.

[00:13:35] [SPEAKER_00]: JUIC will also monitor Jupiter's complex magnetic

[00:13:37] [SPEAKER_00]: radiation and plasma environment and its interplay with the moons

[00:13:41] [SPEAKER_00]: studying the Jovian system as an archetype

[00:13:44] [SPEAKER_00]: for gas giant systems across the universe.

[00:13:47] [SPEAKER_00]: JUIC will make 35 flybys of the three large moons

[00:13:51] [SPEAKER_00]: while orbiting Jupiter before finally settling down

[00:13:54] [SPEAKER_00]: into a permanent orbit around Ganymede.

[00:13:57] [SPEAKER_00]: This report from ESA TV.

[00:14:00] [SPEAKER_01]: Last year our Jupiter icy moons explorer

[00:14:03] [SPEAKER_01]: also known as JUIC set off on its

[00:14:06] [SPEAKER_01]: 8 year journey to Jupiter.

[00:14:09] [SPEAKER_01]: JUIC is on its way to study Jupiter

[00:14:10] [SPEAKER_01]: and its three largest moons, Callisto, Europa

[00:14:14] [SPEAKER_01]: and Ganymede. The mission will investigate these

[00:14:16] [SPEAKER_01]: moons potential to support life by examining their

[00:14:19] [SPEAKER_01]: subsurface oceans.

[00:14:22] [SPEAKER_01]: JUIC is expected to arrive at Jupiter in July 2031

[00:14:26] [SPEAKER_01]: 8 years after launch, after a series of

[00:14:29] [SPEAKER_01]: flybys of Earth, Venus and the Earth-Moon system

[00:14:33] [SPEAKER_01]: the first manoeuvre of its kind.

[00:14:37] [SPEAKER_01]: But why is the journey so long?

[00:14:39] [SPEAKER_01]: At their closest point, Earth and Jupiter

[00:14:42] [SPEAKER_01]: are separated by almost 600 million kilometres.

[00:14:45] [SPEAKER_01]: JUIC has already travelled over 1,000 million

[00:14:48] [SPEAKER_01]: kilometres, yet it's only 15% of the way there.

[00:14:52] [SPEAKER_01]: The answer depends on a variety of factors

[00:14:55] [SPEAKER_01]: that our flight dynamic experts know well

[00:14:57] [SPEAKER_01]: from the amount of fuel used to the power of the rocket

[00:15:01] [SPEAKER_01]: mass of a spacecraft and geometry of the planets.

[00:15:06] [SPEAKER_01]: What are the challenges

[00:15:07] [SPEAKER_01]: to get to Jupiter?

[00:15:09] [SPEAKER_01]: One, the Earth is moving.

[00:15:12] [SPEAKER_01]: On the surface of Earth, typically the fastest

[00:15:14] [SPEAKER_01]: way to travel somewhere is the straightest possible

[00:15:17] [SPEAKER_01]: line. However, in space

[00:15:20] [SPEAKER_01]: straight lines are a massive waste of energy.

[00:15:24] [SPEAKER_01]: When we look up at the night sky

[00:15:26] [SPEAKER_01]: and track the motions of planets, moons, stars

[00:15:29] [SPEAKER_01]: and galaxies, you'll see they're always in motion

[00:15:32] [SPEAKER_01]: around another object. When we launch a rocket

[00:15:35] [SPEAKER_01]: it doesn't leap from a still Earth, but from a planet

[00:15:38] [SPEAKER_01]: zooming at about 30 kilometres per second

[00:15:41] [SPEAKER_01]: around the Sun. As such,

[00:15:44] [SPEAKER_01]: a spacecraft launched from Earth already has a great deal

[00:15:47] [SPEAKER_01]: of orbital energy, the only unit that matters

[00:15:50] [SPEAKER_01]: when determining the size of an orbit around a central body.

[00:15:54] [SPEAKER_01]: Just after launch, a spacecraft is in more

[00:15:56] [SPEAKER_01]: or less the same orbit as our planet is around the Sun.

[00:16:00] [SPEAKER_01]: To break free from this orbit and fly

[00:16:02] [SPEAKER_01]: from the shortest possible straight line from Earth to Jupiter

[00:16:05] [SPEAKER_01]: would need a big rocket and a lot of fuel.

[00:16:09] [SPEAKER_01]: It can be done, but the problem is

[00:16:11] [SPEAKER_01]: you'd then need even more fuel to break

[00:16:14] [SPEAKER_01]: and go into orbit around Jupiter and not be flung past it.

[00:16:19] [SPEAKER_01]: Two, Jupiter

[00:16:20] [SPEAKER_01]: and Earth are both moving and not on the same route.

[00:16:24] [SPEAKER_01]: Jupiter and Earth are always moving with respect

[00:16:26] [SPEAKER_01]: to each other. This means at their furthest distance

[00:16:30] [SPEAKER_01]: when they are on opposite sides of the Sun,

[00:16:32] [SPEAKER_01]: they are separated by whopping 968 million kilometres.

[00:16:37] [SPEAKER_01]: The shortest distance between them

[00:16:39] [SPEAKER_01]: is just under 600 million kilometres

[00:16:42] [SPEAKER_01]: when they are both on the same side of the Sun.

[00:16:45] [SPEAKER_01]: But they're only in this position for a moment

[00:16:47] [SPEAKER_01]: before the distance grows again and the distance

[00:16:51] [SPEAKER_01]: never remains constant. All the solar system planets

[00:16:54] [SPEAKER_01]: are moving at different rates in their orbits

[00:16:57] [SPEAKER_01]: around the Sun. Launching a spacecraft is like

[00:17:00] [SPEAKER_01]: throwing a ball at a moving target from a moving vehicle

[00:17:04] [SPEAKER_01]: not an easy feat.

[00:17:07] [SPEAKER_01]: Engineers must calculate the ideal time

[00:17:09] [SPEAKER_01]: to make the jump on a circular path

[00:17:11] [SPEAKER_01]: from Earth's orbit to where Jupiter will be

[00:17:15] [SPEAKER_01]: when the spacecraft arrives,

[00:17:17] [SPEAKER_01]: not where it is when the spacecraft leaves Earth.

[00:17:22] [SPEAKER_01]: So assuming we have the most powerful launcher

[00:17:24] [SPEAKER_01]: available and we launch on the shortest trajectory

[00:17:27] [SPEAKER_01]: at the right time when the planets are aligned correctly,

[00:17:31] [SPEAKER_01]: how long would it take?

[00:17:34] [SPEAKER_01]: Early space missions such as the Voyager

[00:17:36] [SPEAKER_01]: and Pioneer probes made the journey in less than

[00:17:39] [SPEAKER_01]: two years. And the fastest any object has

[00:17:42] [SPEAKER_01]: travelled to Jupiter was the New Horizons mission.

[00:17:46] [SPEAKER_01]: Launched on 19 January 2006,

[00:17:49] [SPEAKER_01]: New Horizons made its closest approach

[00:17:52] [SPEAKER_01]: to Jupiter on 28 February 2007,

[00:17:56] [SPEAKER_01]: taking a little over a year to reach the planet.

[00:17:59] [SPEAKER_01]: However, all these missions continued onwards,

[00:18:02] [SPEAKER_01]: receiving a boost from Jupiter,

[00:18:04] [SPEAKER_01]: but none were captured by the orbit like

[00:18:06] [SPEAKER_01]: Zeus will be.

[00:18:09] [SPEAKER_01]: 3. We want to be captured by Jupiter's gravity,

[00:18:12] [SPEAKER_01]: not boosted by it. To get into orbit

[00:18:15] [SPEAKER_01]: around the huge planet we need to lose some energy.

[00:18:18] [SPEAKER_01]: But slowing on Zeus's brakes at Jupiter would require

[00:18:21] [SPEAKER_01]: an enormous amount of fuel. Engineers

[00:18:24] [SPEAKER_01]: need to control the spacecraft's mass, balancing

[00:18:27] [SPEAKER_01]: the amount of fuel with the instruments it needs to carry

[00:18:30] [SPEAKER_01]: to complete its mission. The more mass the spacecraft

[00:18:33] [SPEAKER_01]: has, the more fuel it needs to carry, which increases

[00:18:36] [SPEAKER_01]: its weight and makes it more difficult to launch from Earth.

[00:18:40] [SPEAKER_01]: Zeus is one of the heaviest interplanetary

[00:18:42] [SPEAKER_01]: probes ever launched, at just over 6,000 kilos

[00:18:45] [SPEAKER_01]: with the largest suite of scientific instruments ever flown to Jupiter.

[00:18:50] [SPEAKER_01]: To get a spacecraft into orbit

[00:18:52] [SPEAKER_01]: around another planet, we must match its orbital energy.

[00:18:56] [SPEAKER_01]: When Zeus was launched, its orbital

[00:18:58] [SPEAKER_01]: energy was the same as Earth's.

[00:19:00] [SPEAKER_01]: It must gain energy to overcome the pull of the Sun's

[00:19:03] [SPEAKER_01]: gravity and will do so by stealing some orbital energy

[00:19:07] [SPEAKER_01]: from Earth and Venus. Depending on

[00:19:09] [SPEAKER_01]: the relative direction of motion of the planet

[00:19:12] [SPEAKER_01]: and the spacecraft, a gravity assist can either speed up,

[00:19:15] [SPEAKER_01]: slow down or change the direction of the mission.

[00:19:20] [SPEAKER_01]: The spacecraft also deflects

[00:19:21] [SPEAKER_01]: the planet, but by such a miniscule amount

[00:19:24] [SPEAKER_01]: as to be insignificant. Nonetheless,

[00:19:27] [SPEAKER_01]: Newton's third law of motion has been preserved.

[00:19:30] [SPEAKER_01]: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

[00:19:34] [SPEAKER_01]: The world of orbital mechanics

[00:19:36] [SPEAKER_01]: can be a counter-intuitive place,

[00:19:38] [SPEAKER_01]: but with a bit of patience and a lot of planning,

[00:19:41] [SPEAKER_01]: it allows us to do a great deal of science

[00:19:44] [SPEAKER_01]: with just a little fuel.

[00:19:47] [SPEAKER_01]: So, Zeus is taking the scenic route,

[00:19:49] [SPEAKER_01]: using the gravity of other planets to carefully adjust

[00:19:52] [SPEAKER_01]: his trajectory through space and ensure it arrives at Jupiter

[00:19:56] [SPEAKER_01]: with precisely the right speed and direction.

[00:19:59] [SPEAKER_01]: This incredibly complex, constantly evolving route

[00:20:02] [SPEAKER_01]: has been carefully planned out by

[00:20:04] [SPEAKER_01]: Zeus' dedicated mission analysis team over the last 20 years.

[00:20:10] [SPEAKER_01]: Somewhat counter-intuitively,

[00:20:12] [SPEAKER_01]: using the lunar Earth flyby to slow

[00:20:14] [SPEAKER_01]: Zeus down at this point in its journey is actually more efficient

[00:20:17] [SPEAKER_01]: than using the flyby to speed it up.

[00:20:20] [SPEAKER_01]: If we had instead used this flyby to give

[00:20:22] [SPEAKER_01]: Zeus a boost towards Mars, we would have had to wait

[00:20:25] [SPEAKER_01]: a long time for the next planetary flyby.

[00:20:29] [SPEAKER_01]: This first braking maneuver is a way of taking a shortcut

[00:20:32] [SPEAKER_01]: through the inner solar system.

[00:20:36] [SPEAKER_01]: Zeus became extremely close to both the Moon and Earth,

[00:20:39] [SPEAKER_01]: meaning that real-time pinpoint accuracy is required

[00:20:42] [SPEAKER_01]: in all navigation maneuvers.

[00:20:45] [SPEAKER_01]: During the flyby, operators keep a careful watch on the data

[00:20:48] [SPEAKER_01]: coming down from Zeus, making any tiny adjustments needed

[00:20:52] [SPEAKER_01]: to keep the spacecraft on the right course.

[00:20:56] [SPEAKER_01]: Lunar Earth flyby provides

[00:20:57] [SPEAKER_01]: a prime test environment for instrument teams

[00:21:00] [SPEAKER_01]: to collect and analyze data from a natural surface

[00:21:03] [SPEAKER_01]: in space for the first time.

[00:21:05] [SPEAKER_01]: For some instruments, this is the only opportunity

[00:21:08] [SPEAKER_01]: to make certain measurements during Zeus'

[00:21:10] [SPEAKER_01]: entire eight-year journey to Jupiter.

[00:21:13] [SPEAKER_01]: It gives scientists and engineers the chance to calibrate

[00:21:16] [SPEAKER_01]: their instruments, smooth out any remaining issues,

[00:21:19] [SPEAKER_01]: and who knows, they may even make some surprising

[00:21:22] [SPEAKER_01]: scientific discoveries.

[00:21:24] [SPEAKER_01]: It will change Zeus' speed and direction to alter

[00:21:27] [SPEAKER_01]: its course through space, but it's a daring feat.

[00:21:34] [SPEAKER_01]: Thanks to this flyby, Earth bends

[00:21:35] [SPEAKER_01]: Zeus' trajectory through space, breaking it

[00:21:38] [SPEAKER_01]: and redirecting it on course for a flyby of Venus

[00:21:41] [SPEAKER_01]: in August 2025.

[00:21:44] [SPEAKER_01]: From that moment on, the energy boost will begin

[00:21:47] [SPEAKER_01]: with Zeus being whizzed up by Venus and then twice

[00:21:50] [SPEAKER_01]: by Earth, the space exploration equivalent

[00:21:53] [SPEAKER_01]: of drinking three back-to-back espressos.

[00:21:57] [SPEAKER_01]: Once Zeus arrives at Jupiter, it will get close

[00:22:00] [SPEAKER_01]: to Jupiter's moons, trading energy with them

[00:22:02] [SPEAKER_01]: that they've held onto for billions of years

[00:22:06] [SPEAKER_01]: to get a view of these environments like never before,

[00:22:10] [SPEAKER_01]: helping us answer some questions such as

[00:22:12] [SPEAKER_01]: could there be life under the frozen oceans

[00:22:15] [SPEAKER_01]: of Ganymede, Callisto or Europa?

[00:22:18] [SPEAKER_01]: What can we learn about the formation of planets

[00:22:20] [SPEAKER_01]: and moons throughout the universe?

[00:22:24] [SPEAKER_01]: Through the wonder of flight dynamics, by trading

[00:22:26] [SPEAKER_01]: energy with the universe, we will soonish find out.

[00:22:40] [SPEAKER_00]: This is space time.

[00:22:42] [SPEAKER_00]: Still to come, three more Australian satellites sent into orbit

[00:22:45] [SPEAKER_00]: and later in the science report, a new study has found

[00:22:48] [SPEAKER_00]: that tiny volcanic glass shards found in Tasmania

[00:22:52] [SPEAKER_00]: actually originated in a volcanic super-eruption

[00:22:55] [SPEAKER_00]: in New Zealand. All that and more still to come

[00:22:58] [SPEAKER_00]: on space time.

[00:23:15] [SPEAKER_00]: Three more Australian satellites have been sent into orbit.

[00:23:18] [SPEAKER_00]: This latest trio flew up aboard SpaceX's

[00:23:20] [SPEAKER_00]: Transporter 11 mission aboard a Falcon 9 rocket

[00:23:23] [SPEAKER_00]: from Space Launch Complex 4E at the Vandenberg Space Force

[00:23:27] [SPEAKER_00]: in California.

[00:23:29] [SPEAKER_00]: Transporter 11 is carrying 116 payload satellites,

[00:23:32] [SPEAKER_00]: including CubeSats, Microsats and an orbital transfer

[00:23:36] [SPEAKER_00]: vehicle carrying eight payloads.

[00:23:38] [SPEAKER_00]: The three Australian satellites on the manifest included

[00:23:41] [SPEAKER_00]: the Warratah Seed and Kuava 2 six-unit CubeSats

[00:23:45] [SPEAKER_00]: and the Kanyini Microsatellite.

[00:23:47] [SPEAKER_00]: They follow the arrival in orbit of Curtin University's

[00:23:50] [SPEAKER_00]: Binah 2, 3 and 4 CubeSats which are now aboard

[00:23:53] [SPEAKER_00]: the International Space Station's Kibo module after

[00:23:56] [SPEAKER_00]: flying up a few weeks earlier aboard the Cygnus NG-21

[00:23:59] [SPEAKER_00]: cargo ship. As for the new Aussie arrivals

[00:24:02] [SPEAKER_00]: in orbit, well the Warratah Seed space qualification

[00:24:05] [SPEAKER_00]: mission was developed by the University of Sydney and is carrying

[00:24:08] [SPEAKER_00]: a range of experimental technology demonstrators for

[00:24:11] [SPEAKER_00]: five Australian space start-ups as well as several local

[00:24:14] [SPEAKER_00]: commercial clients. The Australian Research Council's

[00:24:18] [SPEAKER_00]: Kuava 2 CubeSat is equipped with a hyperspectral

[00:24:21] [SPEAKER_00]: imager as well as a GPS reflectometry payload

[00:24:23] [SPEAKER_00]: developed by the University of New South Wales for

[00:24:26] [SPEAKER_00]: Earth observation and resource monitoring.

[00:24:29] [SPEAKER_00]: Meanwhile, South Australia's Kanyini spacecraft is also

[00:24:32] [SPEAKER_00]: carrying a locally developed hyperspectral imager designed to

[00:24:35] [SPEAKER_00]: analyse vegetation and soil compositions and detect

[00:24:38] [SPEAKER_00]: smoke from bushfires. Other payloads

[00:24:41] [SPEAKER_00]: aboard the Transporter 11 mission included the European Space

[00:24:44] [SPEAKER_00]: Agency's Arctic Weather Satellite and the FISAT-2

[00:24:47] [SPEAKER_00]: CubeSat. ESA's Arctic Weather Satellite

[00:24:50] [SPEAKER_00]: is a prototype mission. It aims to improve

[00:24:53] [SPEAKER_00]: weather forecasting in the Arctic region, an area that

[00:24:56] [SPEAKER_00]: currently lacks data for accurate short-term forecasts.

[00:24:59] [SPEAKER_00]: It's equipped with a 19-channel, cross-track scanning

[00:25:02] [SPEAKER_00]: microwave radiometer which will provide high resolution

[00:25:05] [SPEAKER_00]: humidity and temperature soundings of the atmosphere in all

[00:25:08] [SPEAKER_00]: weather conditions. It's a forerunner for

[00:25:11] [SPEAKER_00]: a potential constellation of similar satellites to be known

[00:25:14] [SPEAKER_00]: as the EPS Sterner, designed to provide an almost

[00:25:17] [SPEAKER_00]: constant stream of temperature and humidity data from

[00:25:20] [SPEAKER_00]: every location on Earth. That will support

[00:25:23] [SPEAKER_00]: research into climate change, which is occurring at a faster

[00:25:26] [SPEAKER_00]: pace in the Arctic compared to other parts of the planet.

[00:25:29] [SPEAKER_00]: As for FISAT-2, well it's a CubeSat showcasing

[00:25:32] [SPEAKER_00]: different artificial intelligence technologies designed for

[00:25:35] [SPEAKER_00]: Earth observation. The probes equipped with a

[00:25:38] [SPEAKER_00]: multispectral camera and a computer running six different

[00:25:41] [SPEAKER_00]: AI applications that analyse and process imagery

[00:25:44] [SPEAKER_00]: while in orbit. The satellite's designed to

[00:25:47] [SPEAKER_00]: turn images into maps, detect clouds in the

[00:25:50] [SPEAKER_00]: images, classify them and provide insights into cloud

[00:25:53] [SPEAKER_00]: distribution, detect and classify vessels, compress images

[00:25:56] [SPEAKER_00]: on board and reconstruct them on the ground, reducing

[00:25:59] [SPEAKER_00]: download time, spot anomalies in maritime

[00:26:02] [SPEAKER_00]: ecosystems and detect wildfires.

[00:26:05] [SPEAKER_00]: This is space time.

[00:26:22] [SPEAKER_00]: And time now to take a brief look at some of the other

[00:26:24] [SPEAKER_00]: stories making use in science this week with the Science Report.

[00:26:28] [SPEAKER_00]: A new study has shown that babies born

[00:26:31] [SPEAKER_00]: to fathers of an older age may be more likely

[00:26:33] [SPEAKER_00]: to have several health complications at birth.

[00:26:37] [SPEAKER_00]: A report in the Journal of the American Medical Association

[00:26:40] [SPEAKER_00]: looked at data from a decade of births across the United

[00:26:42] [SPEAKER_00]: States totaling over 45 million in order to

[00:26:46] [SPEAKER_00]: investigate the age of fathers and how that might

[00:26:48] [SPEAKER_00]: impact on birth outcomes. The authors found

[00:26:52] [SPEAKER_00]: that proportion of babies being born in the United States

[00:26:55] [SPEAKER_00]: to fathers over the age of 50 is growing, with these

[00:26:57] [SPEAKER_00]: fathers more racially and educationally diverse than the general

[00:27:01] [SPEAKER_00]: population. The authors say that after controlling

[00:27:04] [SPEAKER_00]: for risk factors that come from the mother, having an older

[00:27:07] [SPEAKER_00]: father was associated with a higher risk of preterm

[00:27:10] [SPEAKER_00]: birth and lower birth weight. They also found

[00:27:13] [SPEAKER_00]: that older fathers are more likely to use assisted reproductive

[00:27:16] [SPEAKER_00]: technologies and also more likely to have

[00:27:19] [SPEAKER_00]: female children.

[00:27:21] [SPEAKER_00]: Korean scientists have developed bacteria that can produce

[00:27:24] [SPEAKER_00]: rigid heat stable plastics similar to PET

[00:27:28] [SPEAKER_00]: and polystyrene. The findings reported in the

[00:27:31] [SPEAKER_00]: Journal Trends in Biotechnology could bring industry

[00:27:34] [SPEAKER_00]: a step closer to replacing petroleum based

[00:27:37] [SPEAKER_00]: plastics. The authors engineered the bacteria

[00:27:40] [SPEAKER_00]: specifically to produce and withstand the plastic in ring-shaped

[00:27:43] [SPEAKER_00]: structures which are usually toxic to microorganisms.

[00:27:46] [SPEAKER_00]: While more research is still needed, the authors

[00:27:49] [SPEAKER_00]: say the resulting product is biodegradable and

[00:27:52] [SPEAKER_00]: has physical properties that could lend it to biomedical

[00:27:54] [SPEAKER_00]: applications including drug delivery.

[00:27:58] [SPEAKER_00]: A new study has found that tiny volcanic glass

[00:28:01] [SPEAKER_00]: shards found in Tasmanian wetland sediments

[00:28:03] [SPEAKER_00]: could have originated from a super volcanic eruption

[00:28:06] [SPEAKER_00]: in New Zealand over 250,000 years ago.

[00:28:10] [SPEAKER_00]: If confirmed, it's the first such example

[00:28:13] [SPEAKER_00]: of this type of glass being identified in Australia.

[00:28:17] [SPEAKER_00]: The findings reported in the Journal Quaternary

[00:28:19] [SPEAKER_00]: Science Reviews follows the discovery of silica-rich

[00:28:22] [SPEAKER_00]: volcanic glass in 2.5m deep peat and river sediment

[00:28:26] [SPEAKER_00]: from the Yellow Marsh District.

[00:28:28] [SPEAKER_00]: The authors estimate its age using radiocarbon dating

[00:28:31] [SPEAKER_00]: of plants, spores and sediments above it and then

[00:28:33] [SPEAKER_00]: compare its chemistry to signatures of glass shards

[00:28:36] [SPEAKER_00]: from various volcanic eruptions around the planet.

[00:28:39] [SPEAKER_00]: The samples best match the Oro Wanoe super

[00:28:42] [SPEAKER_00]: eruption 256,000 years ago at the site of

[00:28:45] [SPEAKER_00]: present-day Lake Tapo. The findings support

[00:28:49] [SPEAKER_00]: the study's modelling showing Oro Wanoe ash

[00:28:51] [SPEAKER_00]: may have reached Australia.

[00:28:54] [SPEAKER_00]: From prehistoric times long before language,

[00:28:58] [SPEAKER_00]: humans have been using non-verbal cues for

[00:29:00] [SPEAKER_00]: communication. The shaking of the head, the lifting

[00:29:03] [SPEAKER_00]: of an eyebrow, a smile, these are all expressions

[00:29:06] [SPEAKER_00]: that humans use to communicate.

[00:29:09] [SPEAKER_00]: Nowadays many studies and peer-reviewed research

[00:29:11] [SPEAKER_00]: on non-verbal communication shows that a lot of

[00:29:14] [SPEAKER_00]: non-verbal behaviour can be a sign of underlying

[00:29:17] [SPEAKER_00]: emotional states. However, that doesn't mean

[00:29:20] [SPEAKER_00]: that you can read a person confidently just by

[00:29:23] [SPEAKER_00]: their body language. And that's the thing so

[00:29:26] [SPEAKER_00]: many experts have come out of the woodwork

[00:29:28] [SPEAKER_00]: each claiming to be proficient in body language

[00:29:31] [SPEAKER_00]: reading. Tim Mendam from Australian Skeptic says

[00:29:34] [SPEAKER_00]: psychologists agree that emotional states can find

[00:29:37] [SPEAKER_00]: an outlet in body language but there's just

[00:29:40] [SPEAKER_00]: no complete scientific evidence for many of the

[00:29:43] [SPEAKER_00]: claims being made by so-called body language experts.

[00:29:46] [SPEAKER_03]: Everyone uses body language to see how someone is

[00:29:49] [SPEAKER_03]: reacting to you. Someone raises their eyebrows

[00:29:51] [SPEAKER_03]: and shock etc or hello, what's going on here.

[00:29:54] [SPEAKER_03]: All sorts of things that people do in reaction,

[00:29:56] [SPEAKER_03]: in communication with each other. People do it

[00:29:58] [SPEAKER_03]: naturally, it's just part of a human condition.

[00:30:01] [SPEAKER_00]: Unless you have autism in which case you have

[00:30:03] [SPEAKER_03]: no idea what they mean. That's right, yeah that makes it

[00:30:05] [SPEAKER_03]: very hard. Everything about you, the arm movements,

[00:30:08] [SPEAKER_03]: the way you stand, the way you have nervous tics

[00:30:11] [SPEAKER_03]: or whatever or just habits that you do when you

[00:30:13] [SPEAKER_03]: are confronted with other people or in a difficult

[00:30:15] [SPEAKER_03]: situation or even a non-difficult situation. It's

[00:30:17] [SPEAKER_03]: when you try and make it a science. There are

[00:30:19] [SPEAKER_03]: some people who have said that there are 20,000

[00:30:23] [SPEAKER_03]: facial expressions that people can have. I've got

[00:30:25] [SPEAKER_03]: no idea how they make it 20,000. Could it be that

[00:30:28] [SPEAKER_03]: they make it up? It probably is easy to make it up.

[00:30:30] [SPEAKER_03]: This was someone in 1952 saying this with the

[00:30:32] [SPEAKER_03]: wonderful name of Bird Whistle. He also said

[00:30:35] [SPEAKER_03]: that 65% of face-to-face communication is done

[00:30:38] [SPEAKER_03]: non-verbally. Others have said 7% is via what is

[00:30:42] [SPEAKER_03]: said, 38% through tone and voice and 55% is

[00:30:45] [SPEAKER_03]: through body language. There's all sorts of

[00:30:47] [SPEAKER_03]: figures thrown around. Some are talking about

[00:30:48] [SPEAKER_03]: breathing expressions lasting as short as a 25th

[00:30:51] [SPEAKER_03]: of a second. That's a short time. It has to be

[00:30:54] [SPEAKER_03]: very, very quick to pick up on that. Others have said

[00:30:57] [SPEAKER_03]: obviously the face is the big secret. You can see your face.

[00:30:59] [SPEAKER_03]: Others have suggested no, the real seat of body

[00:31:03] [SPEAKER_03]: language is the feet. I think that's an interesting one to measure.

[00:31:05] [SPEAKER_03]: You're talking to someone, their feet are under the desk. You really can't see them.

[00:31:09] [SPEAKER_03]: Obviously if you're shaking your feet, you might be

[00:31:11] [SPEAKER_03]: nervous if you cut your legs or whatever. They're saying

[00:31:14] [SPEAKER_03]: if they're interested, your feet are facing the speaker. If you're not

[00:31:17] [SPEAKER_03]: interested, the feet are facing the door which would be

[00:31:20] [SPEAKER_03]: difficult if the door is behind you. All sorts of issues that have cropped up a lot.

[00:31:24] [SPEAKER_00]: I was always thought handshakes are an important one too when you

[00:31:27] [SPEAKER_00]: shake someone's hand. As you shake their hand, if you move your

[00:31:30] [SPEAKER_00]: wrist so that your palm is facing downwards,

[00:31:33] [SPEAKER_00]: going to dominate that conversation. In the same way as you have

[00:31:36] [SPEAKER_03]: a two-handed shake, one on the forearm

[00:31:39] [SPEAKER_03]: it means you have control over them. You do the pull towards

[00:31:42] [SPEAKER_03]: the other person. You can do the push, handshake. That's also a dominant thing.

[00:31:44] [SPEAKER_03]: Of course they all squeeze too hard. It's also someone just being nasty

[00:31:47] [SPEAKER_03]: and hurting your hand. That puts you off so they can then win over any argument.

[00:31:51] [SPEAKER_03]: The problem is that as a science, it's very unreliable.

[00:31:54] [SPEAKER_03]: Try and get some sort of reliable thing out of it. Using it to

[00:31:57] [SPEAKER_03]: read people, apart from what you can normally do which is

[00:32:00] [SPEAKER_03]: come and die movements etc. It's like

[00:32:03] [SPEAKER_00]: using body language experts to work out who really

[00:32:06] [SPEAKER_00]: won the debate, the presidential debate or something like that.

[00:32:09] [SPEAKER_03]: I get regular correspondents from a body language expert

[00:32:13] [SPEAKER_03]: who looks at every video of a politician and then runs through

[00:32:16] [SPEAKER_03]: what they did wrong, expressing themselves. A lot of it's exaggerated.

[00:32:19] [SPEAKER_03]: A lot of it comes from 20,000 facial expressions

[00:32:22] [SPEAKER_03]: or whatever. That picking up and getting something empirical out of it

[00:32:25] [SPEAKER_03]: apart from the obvious things that everyone reacts to,

[00:32:28] [SPEAKER_03]: everyone's aware of. It's not a pseudo science as such

[00:32:31] [SPEAKER_03]: but it can be a bit of an over-exaggerated science.

[00:32:34] [SPEAKER_03]: I think it's the ability to actually do things. Some people put forward

[00:32:37] [SPEAKER_03]: things you can do to express yourself. I don't know if that means

[00:32:40] [SPEAKER_03]: fooling people. One is the concept of mirror neurons.

[00:32:43] [SPEAKER_03]: When someone does something, you do it too. Spatial awareness, don't come

[00:32:46] [SPEAKER_03]: too close to someone. Give them their body space.

[00:32:49] [SPEAKER_03]: Posture, make sure your posture is regularly checking your posture.

[00:32:52] [SPEAKER_03]: Make sure you can sit upright etc. And eye contact variability.

[00:32:55] [SPEAKER_03]: Practice veering your eye contact. Don't always stare

[00:32:58] [SPEAKER_03]: at someone in the face. Actually most people don't. Most people do look away

[00:33:01] [SPEAKER_03]: when they're talking to someone and then they look back and then they look away again.

[00:33:03] [SPEAKER_03]: You know how off-putting it is with someone staring straight at you.

[00:33:07] [SPEAKER_00]: If you have autism, you never look someone in the face and then

[00:33:09] [SPEAKER_00]: they think you're being deliberately...

[00:33:12] [SPEAKER_00]: Evasive. My philosophy is never look someone in the eye

[00:33:15] [SPEAKER_00]: when you're eating a banana.

[00:33:48] [SPEAKER_00]: Spacetime is on music, bites.com, Soundcloud, YouTube,

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[00:34:30] [SPEAKER_00]: You've been listening to Spacetime with Stuart Gary.

[00:34:33] [SPEAKER_02]: This has been another quality podcast production from bites.com.